THE 

WOMAN  CITIZEN 

A  PROBLEM  IN  EDUCATION 


THE 

WOMAN   CITIZEN 

A   PROBLEM   IN   EDUCATION 


BY 


HORACE  A.  HOLLISTER 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION  AND  HIGH    SCHOOL  VISITOR  AT  Tl^E 
UNIVERSITY   OF  ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR  OF   "high  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION,"    "HIGH  SCHOOL  AND 

CLASS  MANAGEMENT,"   AND   "THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF 

EDUCATION    IN    A  DEMOCRACY" 


D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  LONDON 

1918 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


TO  THE   ONE  WOMAN 

WHOSE  INFLUENCE   AND   SYMPATHY 

HAVE    MADE  IT  POSSIBLE 

FOR  THIS  BOOK  TO  BE  WRITTEN 

MY  WIFE 


398674 


The  White  House,  Washington,  D.  C. 

To  THE  Memorialists  of  France,  Great  Britain,  Bel- 
gium, Italy  and  Portugal: 

I  have  read  your  message  with  the  deepest  interest 
and  I  welcome  the  opportunity  to  say  that  I  agree  with- 
out reservation  that  the  full  and  sincere  democratic  re- 
construction of  the  world  for  which  we  are  striving,  and 
which  we  are  determined  to  bring  about  at  any  cost,  will 
not  have  been  completely  or  adequately  attained  until 
women  are  admitted  to  the  suffrage,  and  that  only  by 
that  action  can  the  nations  of  the  world  realize  for  the 
benefit  of  future  generations  the  full  ideal  force  of  opin- 
ion or  the  full  humane  forces  of  action. 

The  services  of  women  during  this  supreme  crisis  of 
the  world's  history  have  been  of  the  most  signal  useful- 
ness and  distinction.  The  war  could  not  have  been 
fought  without  them,  or  its  sacrifices  endured.  It  is  high 
time  that  some  part  of  our  debt  of  gratitude  to  them 
should  be  acknowledged  and  paid,  and  the  only  acknowl- 
edgment they  ask  is  their  admission  to  the  suffrage.  Can 
we  justly  refuse  it? 

As  for  America,  it  is  my  earnest  hope  that  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States  will  give  an  unmistakable  answer  to 
this  question  by  passing  the  suffrage  amendment  to  our 
federal  constitution  before  the  end  of  this  session. 
Cordially  and  sincerely, 
(Signed)  Woodrow  Wilson. 

[The  above  message  was  sent  June  i8,  ipi8,  in  reply 
to  a  memorial  addressed  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  The  sentiment  of  this  message  strikes  the  key- 
note to  what  this  book  has  sought  to  express.] 

vii 


PREFACE      . 

When  this  treatment  of  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
modem  problems  first  evolved  in  the  mind  of  the  author 
the  world  was  still  at  peace.  The  actual  writing  of  it 
was  begun  very  shortly  after  the  United  States  entered 
into  the  war.  The  motive  for  the  undertaking  did  not, 
primarily,  arise  out  of  the  war  situation.  But  as  the 
writing  proceeded  our  interest  in  the  war  as  participants 
naturally  tended  to  deepen  the  effect  of  the  new  situa- 
tion thus  arising  for  women  upon  the  author's  outlook. 

Notwithstanding  this  influence,  or  perhaps  as  partially 
resulting  from  it,  there  has  been  uppermost  in  mind  the 
need  of  a  clearer  comprehension,  at  this  time,  of  the 
requirements  of  citizenship  in  a  democracy  of  the  newly 
dawning  twentieth  century  variety;  of  woman's  place 
in  it,  of  her  ability  to  serve,  and  of  her  real  need  of  a 
fuller  share  in  civic  and  social  affairs.  There  has  been 
a  feeling  also  which  has  tried  to  find  expression  here  that 
womanly  qualities  are  needed  in  affairs  of  state;  that 
the  world  is  the  loser  by  so  much  as  it  has  failed  to 
permit  the  full  expression  of  herself  on  the  part  of 
woman  in  all  the  great  fundamental  human  interests. 

Just  how  nearly  this  ideal  has  been  realized  the  read- 
ing public  must  judge.  Much  of  the  material  that  had 
to  be  reviewed  in  order  to  estimate  woman's  place  and 
work  in  the  various  activities  of  life  was  found  to  be 

ix 


PREFACE 

widely  scattered  and  the  records  often  only  fragmentary 
when  discovered.  But  if  this  will  add  anything  to  the 
progress  of  the  world  towards  a  real  and  full  democracy 
the  labor  will  not  have  been  in  vain. 

The  author  is  under  deep  obligations  to  several  friends 
who  have  read  the  manuscript  and  offered  valuable  sug- 
gestions and  criticisms.  Especially  is  this  true  of  Pro-^ 
fessor  Isabel  Bevier  of  the  department  of  Household 
Science  at  the  University  of  Illinois ;  and  of  Mrs.  Cath- 
erine Waugh  McCulloch,  of  Chicago,  for  most  helpful 
criticisms  and  suggestions  with  reference  to  Chapters 
III,  IV  and  V. 

Horace  A.  Hollister. 


CONTENTS 


Introduction xiii 

I.     The  Meaning  of  Citizenship        .        .  i 
il.     Woman's  Place  with  Regard  to  Citi- 
zenship       i6 

III.  The  Woman's  Suffrage  Movement  in 

THE  United  States  ....  33 

IV.  The  American  Woman  in  Politics      .  51 
V.     The  Legal  Status  of  Women  in  the 

United  States 63 

VI.     Woman  and  the  American  Home  .        .  83 

VII.     The  Social  Life  of  Women  ...  99 
VIII.     Sports  and  Recreation  for  Girls  and 

Women 113 

IX.     Woman  and  Religion      ....  129 

X.     Woman  as  an  Industrial  Worker       .  142 
XL     The      Economic      Independence      of 

Women 158 

XII.     Women  and  War     .        .        .        .        .  180 

XIII.  Women  in  Art,  Music  and  the  Drama  193 

XIV.  Woman's    Contribution    to   Learning 

and  Literature        .        .        .        .210 

XV.     Motherhood 'it^y 

XVI.     The  Man  in  the  Case    ....  240 

XVII.  The  Education  of  Women     .        .        .  252 

XVIII.  What  of  the  Future?    ....  287 
Index       .        .        .        . '      .        .        .  305 


INTRODUCTION 

Just  as  we  thought  the  page  had  been  turned  for  the 
beginning  of  the  annals  of  a  new  century  we  suddenly 
found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  an  upheaval  such  as 
the  world  had  never  witnessed. 

Evidently  the  conditions  growing  out  of  the  nineteenth 
century  have  just  reached  the  climax,  and  this  upheaval 
seems  destined  to  be  at  once  the  closing  of  the  nine- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  Men 
say  it  is  a  struggle  for  the  supremacy  of  this  or  that 
form  of  government;  but  only  because  governments 
lead.  It  is  really  a  conflict  of  ideals,  of  differing  concep- 
tions of  human  rights,  of  justice,  and  of  the  well-being  of 
the  race.  The  outcome,  when  the  champions  of  liberty 
have  come  forth  victorious  at  last,  must  mean  not  so 
much  changes  in  governments  as  profound  social  read- 
justments. The  real  task  of  the  twentieth  century  will 
then  begin. 

It  is  the  social  conditions  back  of  government,  the 
conditions  among  the  governed,  that  make  for  autocracy 
or  democracy.  All  that  either  form  of  government  needs 
in  order  to  perpetuate  itself  is  power  to  perpetuate  and 
strengthen  those  conditions.  To  appreciate  this  fact  we 
need  only  to  think  of  conditions  existing  before  the 
war  in  nations  which  have  been  or  are  now  the  promi- 
nent actors.     Up  to  1914  the  world  looked  upon  the 

xiii 


INTRODUCTION 

German  Empire  as  being  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a 
democracy  in  spite  of  its  form  of  government.  This 
was  because  of  its  very  complete  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. According  to  Plato  and  all  the  rest  it  thus  ful- 
filled the  highest  requirement  of  a  democracy.  Russia, 
on  the  other  hand,  was,  aside  from  the  Turk,  the  dark- 
est type  of  autocratic  rule  in  Europe.  In  this  case 
the  majority  of  the  people  were  entirely  unschooled.  To 
maintain  autocracy  in  Russia  the  Czar  had  only  to  pre- 
serve a  proper  ratio  between  the  literates  and  illiterates 
in  favor  of  illiteracy. 

It  remained  for  the  House  of  Hohenzollem  to  hit 
upon  a  plan  by  which  the  chief  strength  of  a  democracy 
might  produce  an  autocracy  of  a  new  type,  one  more 
deadly,  and  more  powerful,  than  the  world  had  ever 
known.  Like  all  great  inventions  the  method  is  simple 
enough  when  once  it  is  understood.  A  great  German 
philosopher  gave  utterance  to  the  idea  that  ^'whatever  a 
nation  would  have  appear  in  the  lives  of  its  people  it 
must  first  put  into  the  schools."  A  Prussian  king 
grasped  this  idea  and  at  once  set  in  motion  the  machinery 
which  has  produced  the  Germany  of  today — an  autoc- 
racy which  seized  the  schools,  the  sources  of  enlighten- 
ment as  men  like  Luther  and  Comenius  had  seen  them, 
and  converted  them  into  a  machine  for  subjugating 
human  intelligence  and  skill  of  the  highest  order  to 
the  sway  of  an  autocracy  ruthless  and  greedy  for  power 
beyond  anything  else  in  the  world. 

Russia,  once  typical  of  absolutism,  has  already  put 
aside  its  Czar  in  a  struggle  for  freedom, — hopeless,  as 
yet,  because  of  the  widespread  ignorance  which  was 

xiv 


INTRODUCTION 

the  temporary  safety  of  autocratic  rule.  The  British 
Empire,  France,  Italy  and  the  United  States,  while  hav- 
ing forms  of  government  varying  in  types,  still  represent 
among  the  masses  of  their  people  a  widespread  distribu- 
tion of  intelligence  as  well  as  of  ideals  of  liberty  and 
justice.  Among  all  the  Allies  that  still  persist  in  the 
fight  there  is  thus  a  common  bond,  and  there  will  like- 
wise be  for  them  problems  of  reconstruction  more  or 
less  of  a  common  character  when  the  war  is  over. 

Not  least  among  these  problems  will  be  that  of  woman's 
place  in  the  industries  and  her  social  and  political  status. 
The  time  seems  opportime  for  some  such  attempt  as  is 
herein  represented  to  set  forth  in  organized  form  the 
essential  elements  of  woman's  problem  as  a  citizen,  and 
to  suggest  her  educational  needs.  Undoubtedly,  women 
are  here  facing  the  most  critical  situation  in  the  entire 
course  of  social  evolution.  To  them  the  summons  is 
to  meet  this  crisis,  to  study  well  the  elements  involved  in 
this  swiftly  changing  situation ;  to  do  all  this  in  the  light 
of  their  instincts,  their  powers,  their  resources  through 
education. 

If  one  were  to  undertake  to  foresee  the  greatest  out- 
come of  the  war  from  the  present  situation  it  would  seem 
to  be  the  making  of  a  new  discovery,  shall  we  say  final, 
of  democracy.  It  will  be  as  though  all  that  was  in  Magna 
Charta,  the  Bill  of  Rights  and  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence were  reduced  to  final  principles  as  expressing 
human  relations  in  society — their  rights,  their  obliga- 
tions— applicable  to  all  peoples  regardless  of  the  form 
of  government  or  preexisting  social  distinctions.  Such 
an  evolution  will  call  for  a  new  kind  of  valuation  of 

XV 


INTRODUCTION 

the  individual  as  related  to  the  group,  and  of  universal 
education  as  the  chief  instrumentality  of  the  social  order 
in  maintaining  itself  on  such  a  basis. 

Along  with  this  re-discovery  of  democracy  must  surely 
come  a  general  awakening  to  the  fact  that  women  are 
a  very  vital  part  of  it,  and  that  they  must  be  included 
in  all  fundamental  considerations  of  social  adjustment,^ 
of  education,  and  the  principles  of  government.  Thus 
men  and  women  alike  will  become  world-citizens  in  this 
greater  democracy.  How  are  women  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  their  part  in  this  new  order? 

We  see  women  now  everywhere  interested  in  problems 
which  the  war  has  brought.  They  are  organized  and 
active  as  never  before  for  national  and  inter-allied  serv- 
ice. They  have  rallied  to  the  Red  Cross  work  for 
which  thousands  of  them  are  sewing,  knitting,  planning 
ways  and  means  for  helping  and  comforting  the  wounded, 
the  sick  and  the  destitute.  With  equal  zeal  and  intelli- 
gence they  have  taken  up  the  problem  of  food  conserva- 
tion. They  are  stepping  in  to  fill  the  places  made 
vacant  by  the  call  of  men  to  arms  or  to  other  fields  of 
service  which  only  men  are  prepared  to  render.  They 
are  organizing  at  home  to  help  conserve  the  institutions 
there  through  which  we  are  to  be  able  to  secure  to  pos- 
terity the  results  of  peace  through  victory.  More  than 
all  else  they  are  giving,  as  mothers,  the  most  precious 
gift  that  humanity  can  offer  as  they  heroically  send  their 
sons  to  do  battle  and  to  die,  if  need  be,  for  the  cause 
of  freedom  and  justice. 

Surely  out  of  all  this  new  experience  must  come  some 
light  that  will  help  to  point  the  way  for  future  action 

xvi 


INTRODUCTION 

in  preparation  for  a  better  citizenship.  If  there  is 
really  to  be  peace  and  safety  for  the  world* we  must 
somehow  find  a  way  to  manage  our  national  and  in- 
ternational affairs  so  that  considerations  of  humanity  and 
justice  shall  stand  above  all  other  considerations.  Great 
changes  are  evidently  coming  in  our  scheme  of  educa- 
tion ;  but  neither  Germany  nor  Russia  can  furnish  us  the 
type.  We  must,  however,  be  sure  of  one  thing:  That 
the  perpetuation  of  the  ideals  of  liberty  must  be  pro- 
vided through  our  schools  and  that  equal  rights,  equal 
opportunity  for  the  ''pursuit  of  happiness,"  must  be 
found,  if  they  are  to  be  found  at  all,  through  a  higher 
and  more  clearly  defined  type  of  universal  education  than 
we  have  yet  known. 

To  this  end  we  need  to  have  history  rewritten.  Here- 
tofore men,  chiefly,  have  figured  in  history — men  as 
rulers  and  warriors.  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  with 
such  a  one-sided  teaching  of  social  science  the  impor- 
tance of  woman's  place  in  the  social  order  has  not  been 
recognized?  What  good  reason  can  anyone  offer  why 
the  home,  the  family,  and  woman's  service  as  a  social 
worker,  should  not  have  a  place  in  the  story  of  our 
nation's  rise  and  development?  We  need  to  educate  our 
boys  differently,  to  teach  them  the  place  that  woman 
should  hold  in  our  social  and  civic  order.  We  need 
also  such  an  education  for  our  girls  as  shall  not  only 
fit  them  better  for  citizenship  in  a  democracy  but  shall 
give  them,  at  the  same  time,  a  fuller  conception  of 
the  dignity  of  woman's  place  in  the  home,  the  family, 
and  the  community. 

Never  since  history  began  has  there  been  a  time  better 
xvii 


INTRODUCTION 

suited  to  the  making  of  those  readjustments  necessary 
to  place  woman  as  she  deserves  to  be  placed  and  as  the 
world  needs  that  she  be  placed.  The  old  limitations,  the 
false  values,  the  superstitions,  are  all  being  burned  away 
in  the  great  melting  pot  of  the  nations.  While  we  as 
Americans  go  forward  to  take  our  share  of  the  burdens 
of  war,  let  us  not  forget  that  there  will  rest  upon  us, 
when  victory  comes,  a  great  responsibility  in  seeing  that 
all  elements  of  autocratic  injustice  be  eliminated  from 
our  social  and  industrial  relations.  For  as  we  fight  to 
make  democracy  safe  in  the  world,  we  must  also  think 
through  the  problem  of  our  schools.  We  must  not 
only  secure  through  them  that  intelligence  necessary 
to  the  very  existence  of  such  an  order  of  government, 
but  we  must  see  to  it,  also,  that  there  is  included  in 
our  educational  system  that  teaching  and  those  condi- 
tions best  calculated  to  perpetuate,  as  a  universal  heritage, 
high  ideals  of  liberty  and  of  service. 

One  cannot  read  at  all  extensively  the  writings  of 
women  who  have  been  leaders  in  thought  and  action  for 
greater  freedom  of  mankind  without  noting  their  plea 
against  the  oppression  of  their  sex.  Nor  have  they 
lacked  for  effective  championship  among  men.  Such  a 
situation  is  surely  anomalous  in  an  age  devoted  to  ideals 
of  freedom.  It  becomes  a  discordant  note  wherever  the 
great  principles  of  American  democracy  are  proclaimed. 
It  is  a  condition  that  calls  for  most  serious  thought 
and  for  prompt  action  wherever  wrongs  are  waiting  to  be 
righted. 

Is  it  not  well  that  all  men  and  women  should  seek  to 
know  the  causes  of  a  social  attitude  which  could  thus 

xviii 


INTRODUCTION 

place  one  half  of  the  social  group  at  a  disadvantaged 
Should  not  all  good  citizens  seek  to  free  themselves 
from  the  prejudices  of  custom  and  of  education  suffi- 
ciently to  enable  them  to  face  this  question  fairly  and 
in  the  interests  of  justice  to  women? 

In  order  that  this  may  be  done  it  seems  desirable 
that  we  survey  carefully  the  essential  qualities  of  women 
and  seek  to  know  under  what  conditions  of  freedom  or 
limitation  these  qualities  have  been  and  are  being  devel- 
oped. Are  the  essential  conditions  of  citizenship  such 
that  not  all  of  them  may  be  shared  alike  by  men  and 
women  ?  Are  there  established  social  customs  that  limit 
unnecessarily  the  free  exercise  and  development  of 
woman's  powers  ?  Is  our  system  of  education  rightly  ad- 
justed with  reference  to  such  development? 

These  and  many  other  similar  questions  naturally  arise 
as  one  reads  the  discussions,  pro  and  con,  of  woman's 
social  and  civic  rights.  It  seems  that  the  only  way  to 
find  a  fair  answer  is  by  means  of  a  general  survey  of 
woman's  status  and  achievement  in  the  various  fields  of 
service,  both  historically  and  as  they  appear  today;  and 
in  the  light  of  such  a  survey  to  seek  any  needed  readjust- 
ments through  education.  To  at  least  a  partial  accom- 
plishment of  these  ends  the  following  chapters  are  de~ 
voted. 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

A  PROBLEM  IN  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   MEANING   OF    CITIZENSHIP 

The  historical  development  of  that  social  and  po- 
litical relationship  of  the  individual  expressed  in  the 
term  citizen  is  still  somewhat  widely  dispersed  and 
vaguely  outlined  in  the  records  of  civilization.  The 
first  social  unit  to  appear  in  man's  evolution  was  the 
family.  As  far  as  is  now  known  the  headship  of 
this  unit  was  first  vested  in  the  mother.  At  a  little 
later  stage  appeared  the  father-right  in  family  control. 

Out  of  the  family  as  it  developed  and  branched 
came  the  tribe  or  clan  with  its  patriarchal  ruler.  Later, 
as  these  tribes  or  clans  found  it  expedient  to  unite 
for  protection  or  other  purposes,  there  appeared  the 
state  over  which  some  one  person  of  especial  prowess 
or  ability  as  leader  became  ruler,  either  absolute  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  council  of  the  old  men  of  the  tribes. 

Out  of  the  experiences  of  men  thus  living  together 
in  these  larger  groups  made  up  of  tribal  groups  among 

I 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

which  often  conflicting  claims  and  interests  arose, 
there  gradually  developed  certain  customs  and  laws 
as  to  the  relationships  of  individuals  and  families. 
Likewise  in  their  contact  with  other  state  groups,  hav- 
ing also  common  interests  which  bound  them,  there 
developed  a  corresponding  code  of  laws  by  which  all 
matters  incident  to  this  relationship  might  be  adjusted. 

Thus  there  emerged  finally  certain  constituent  ele- 
ments as  involved  in  the  idea  of  a  state,  as  people, 
territory,  law,  government,  order,  sovereignty,  inde- 
pendence, autonomy,  stability.  The  resulting  social 
order  thus  set  up  naturally  evolved  certain  rights  of 
the  individual,  as  the  right  of  property  and  the  rights 
growing  out  of  all  the  various  relationships  of  indi- 
viduals to  each  other  and  to  the  state.  Thus  the  mem- 
bers of  this  larger  social  group,  while  retaining  their 
family  membership,  also  became  members,  as  sub- 
jects or  citizens,  of  the  state. 

Citizenship  has  thus  had  different  meanings  in  dif- 
ferent countries  as  well  as  at  different  periods  in  the 
history  of  any  given  country.  The  subjects  of  a  king 
or  an  emperor  might  all  or  part  of  them  be  citizens 
according  to  the  established  laws  of  the  land.  On  the 
other  hand,  citizenship  in  a  democracy  might  mean 
quite  a  different  thing. 

An  early  type  of  the  state  was  the  city-state,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Greek  cities.     Citizenship  in  Athens, 

2 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

however,  meant  something  quite  different  from  citi- 
zenship in  Sparta.    Aristotle  in  his   'PoHtics    says : 

The  answer  to  the  question,  "Who  is  a  citizen  ?"  is  dif- 
ferent in  different  states,  and  depends  on  the  law  and 
constitution  of  each.  The  whole  body  of  the  inhabitants 
of  a  country  enjoying  the  protection  of  the  laws,  in- 
cluding the  young  who  are  still  under  the  legal  age,  and 
the  very  old  who  have  passed  the  time  of  action,  and  all 
others  under  any  other  species  of  disability,  are,  in  a 
certain  wide  and  general  sense,  citizens.  But  the  full 
and  complete  definition  of  a  citizen  is  confined  to  those 
who  participate  in  the  governing  power,  either  of  them- 
selves or  their  representatives. 

Such  might  well  be  the  meaning  of  citizenship  in 
Athens;  but  the  Spartan,  who  believed  in  conserving 
the  entire  male  membership  of  the  state  for  war  and 
police  duty,  saw  a  decidedly  different  meaning  in  the 
term. 

Rome  also  was  at  first  a  city-state,  and  citizenship 
meant  much  the  same  as  in  Greece.  But  through  con- 
quest Rome  broke  down  the  older  custom  of  city-states 
by  which  members  of  families  became  citizens  as  such. 
She  established  a  world-state  in  which  men,  as  indi- 
viduals, received  recognition.  Thus  citizenship  passed 
from  being  an  exclusive  possession  of  the  patrician 
class;  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  were  first 
extended  to  the  plebeians,  then  to  f  reedmen,  and  finally 
to  all  in  the  empire.    In  the  Roman  state  citizen-men 

3 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

could  marry  citizen-women,  and  their  offspring  be- 
came citizens  by  birth. 

Following  the  Roman  Empire  came  the  reorgani- 
zation of  modern  European  states  whose  laws  of  citi- 
zenship, in  the  main,  followed  the  Roman  law.  But 
the  varying  racial  types  and  the  forms  of  government 
established  naturally  resulted  in  variations  in  the  mean- 
ing of  citizenship.  The  proximity  of  these  states  and 
the  tendency  to  migrate  from  one  to  the  other  as  cities 
and  commerce  developed  soon  made  necessary  a  dis- 
tinction between  citizens  and  strangers  or  aliens  so 
that  in  time  laws  were  established  by  the  different 
states  by  which  alien  residents  might  become  natu- 
ralized and  thus  transfer  their  allegiance  to  the  state 
of  their  adoption.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
citizenship  thus  conferred  on  those  alien  by  birth  was 
bestowed  as  a  privilege  and  a  benefit  on  the  individual 
requesting  it;  and  it  might  not,  under  any  condition, 
be  forced  upon  him.  Individuals  thus  became  citizens 
only  by  birth  or  naturalization. 

Later,  in  the  further  development  of  European 
states,  as  various  changes  appeared  in  ideas  of  gov- 
ernment, the  status  of  the  individual  citizen  changed 
also.  The  most  marked  of  the  influences  causing  these 
changes  were  Christianity  and  the  ideal  of  democratic 
government. 

The  American  Colonies  were  first  organized  under 

4 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

charter  governments  set  up  by  the  British  Crown. 
When,  in  1776  and  1777,  most  of  the  colonies  set  up 
constitutional  governments  of  their  own  they  natu- 
rally transferred  the  ideas  of  citizenship  which  had 
become  established  by  usage  under  their  respective 
charters.  Thus  the  common  law  of  England  became 
the  basis  for  determining  citizen  rights  in  the  thir- 
teen original  states,  as  expressed  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  "the  right  to  life,  liberty  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness."  To  these  should  be  added  right 
of  property,  of  trial  by  jury,  and  freedom  of  con- 
science. Before  the  adoption  of  a  federal  constitu- 
tion, therefore,  the  states  had  assumed  the  right  to 
define  citizenship  within  their  own  limits;  but  varia- 
tions in  definitions  had  chiefly  to  do  with  laws  defin- 
ing the  electorate.  Thus,  under  our  state  constitutions 
several  states  allow  aliens  to  vote  who  have  declared 
their  intention  to  become  citizens.  Many  states  now 
grant  suffrage  to  women  but  with  varying  degrees 
of  limitation.  Some  states  have  a  slight  educational 
qualification  either  absolute  or  as  an  alternative.  In 
some  few  instances  property  is  either  a  definite  re- 
quirement or  an  alternative. 

As  these  state  constitutions  originally  preceded  the 
federal  constitution  in  their  establishment,  the  latter 
was  practically  silent  on  the  meaning  of  citizenship. 
As  a  result  of  thus  leaving  each  state  free  to  define 

5 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

citizenship  within  its  own  boundaries  numerous  com- 
plications arose,  and  various  points  in  dispute  went  up 
to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  for  settlement. 
The  following  quotation  is  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
general  attitude  of  the  Court :  ^ 

There  is  in  our  political  system  a  government  of  each 
of  the  several  states  and  a  government  of  the  United 
States.  Each  is  distinct  from  the  other  and  has  citizens 
of  its  own  who  owe  it  allegiance,  and  whose  rights,  within 
its  jurisdiction,  it  must  protect.  The  same  person  may  be 
at  the  same  time  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  and  a 
citizen  of  a  state ;  but  his  rights  of  citizenship  under  one 
of  these  governments  will  be  different  from  those  he  has 
under  the  other.  The  government  of  the  United  States, 
although  it  is,  within  the  scope  of  its  powers,  supreme 
and  beyond  the  states,  can  neither  grant  nor  secure  to 
its  citizens  rights  or  privileges  not  expressly  or  by  im- 
plication placed  under  its  jurisdiction.  All  that  cannot 
be  so  granted  or  secured  are  left  to  the  exclusive  protec- 
tion of  the  States. 

When,  in  1870,  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the 
United  States  constitution  was  ratified  the  result  was 
that  we  then  had  a  pretty  clear  definition  of  citizenship 
under  the  federal  government.  Since  that  adoption 
situations  of  doubt  as  to  federal  or  state  jurisdiction 
have  largely  disappeared.  The  first  section  of  this 
amendment  reads: 

All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States, 
and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of 
*92  U.  S.  Rep.,  p.  542. 

6 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

the  United  States  and  of  the  states  wherein  they  reside. 
No  state  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States;  nor  shall  any  state  deprive  any  person 
of  life,  liberty  or  property  without  due  process  of  law; 
nor  deny  to  any  person  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Not  only  did  this  define  citizenship  from  the  fed- 
eral standpoint,  but  it  gave,  also,  to  the  federal  gov- 
ernment control  over  certain  acts  of  the  states  as 
affecting  citizen  rights  and  immunities. 

But  the  ideals  of  democracy  require  something  more 
in  citizenship  than  rights  and  privileges.  "For,"  says 
John  Maccunn,^  "though  to  be  a  citizen  is  to  possess 
rights,  to  possess  rights  is  not  to  be  a  citizen.  It  is 
to  be  merely  in  the  way  to  become  one."  A  govern- 
ment "of  the  people,  for  the  people,  by  the  people" 
demands  vastly  more  than  rights  of  citizenship.  First 
of  all  the  state  itself  must  preseire  its  autonomy  and 
its  independence.  It  must  be  able  and  prepared  to  pro- 
tect its  citizens  in  their  rights  if  rights  they  are  to  have 
and  enjoy.  And  in  a  government  "by  the  people"  the 
people  themselves  are  bound  to  provide  for  the  safety 
of  the  persons  and  property  of  individuals.  If  the  peo- 
ple are  to  govern  they  must  be  strong  in  character 
and  intelligence  thus  to  rule  over  their  own  destinies, 
to  preserve  the  peace,  to  conserve  all  national  inter- 

*  "Ethics  of  Citizenship,"  John  Maccunn. 

7 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ests,  and  "to  secure  to  themselves  and  their  posterity 
(all)  the  blessings  of  liberty." 

Thus  there  are  many  things  besides  rights  among 
the  essentials  of  citizenship  in  the  United  States.  There 
is  the  obligation  to  service.  To  put  this  in  the  lan- 
guage of  another:*  "Democracy  has  missed  its  mark 
until  it  has  brought  the  citizen  something  more  than 
his  rights."  Among  other  essentials  mentioned  by 
this  author  are  (i)  The  earning  of  an  honest  liveli- 
hood; (2)  Physical  health;  (3)  Participation  in  the 
influences  of  family  life;  (4)  Political  activity — ^vot- 
^^S'>  (5)  I'h^  alliance  of  religion;  (6)  Contact  with 
things  of  the  mind. 

It  is  not  enough  that  a  nation  should  gather  within  its 
borders  industries  and  commerce,  political  institutions, 
schools,  universities,  churches,  a  rich  inheritance  in  Lit- 
erature, Science  and  Art.  It  does  not  even  suffice  that 
men  should  be  able,  with  a  just  and  patriotic  joy,  to  know 
that  such  achievements  have  made  their  country  great 
in  the  eye  of  the  world.  The  day  of  satisfying  citizenship, 
and  of  realized  progress  and  freedom,  is  still  in  the 
future,  so  long  as  the  ordinary  citizen  has  not  yet  learnt 
to  number  these  things  among  the  influences  that  actu- 
ally quicken,  strengthen,  enrich  and  elevate  his  life.* 

This  is  but  another  way  for  saying  that  citizenship 

under  a  government  "of  the  people,  for  the  people,  by 

the  people"   involves  heavy  personal  obligations  by 

•"Ethics  of  Citizenship,"  John  Maccunn. 
*Op.cit. 

8 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

each  individual  member  of  the  body  politic.  Govern- 
ment in  any  form,  to  be  successful,  demands  the  lodg- 
ment somewhere  of  great  wisdom,  forbearance,  and 
unselfishness.  If  government  is  to  spring  spontane- 
ously from  the  common  people  of  a  nation,  then  these 
qualities  must  abide  in  them  at  least  to  that  degree 
which  shall  enable  them  to  select  the  experts  who  are 
to  be  assigned  the  tasks  of  conducting  the  affairs 
of  state  in  the  interests  of  all  the  governed. 

But  this  is  not  all.  The  social  order  which  such 
a  government  aemands  is  not  compatible  with  any  ele- 
ments of  autocracy.  No  group  or  interest  in  industry, 
commerce,  education,  religion,  art,  can  assume  to  itself 
any  authority  other  than  that  which  is  approved  of  all 
as  for  the  common  good.  To  do  so  would  be  to 
deny  the  principle  of  autonomy  to  a  democracy;  and 
our  statement  of  this  principle  does  not  read  *'by  the 
people" — ^and  others.  It  is  at  this  point  that  democ- 
racy is  thus  far  found  to  be  most  vulnerable.  As 
long  as  there  shall  be  any  considerable  group  of  citi- 
zens representing  a  common,  fundamental  interest  of 
society,  which  is  not  able  to  produce  individuals  whose 
capability  as  leaders,  teachers,  lawmakers,  is  readily 
comparable  to  those  of  all  other  social  elements  and 
interests,  so  long  will  our  social  fabric  remain  unstable 
and  indeterminate  as  to  its  durability. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  pronouncement  issued  by 

9 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  founders  of  this  government  to  the  effect  that 
each  individual  should  be  equal  to  every  other  individ- 
ual in  his  right  to  "life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness"  presupposes  much  more  than  a  mere  form 
of  government.  It  demands  a  citizenship  possessing 
a  high  order  of  intelligence,  an  appreciation  of  funda- 
mental human  values,  a  well  balanced  ethical  judg- 
ment, a  profound  sense  of  obligation  to  serve — in  short 
the  embodiment  of  the  very  essence  of  the  principles 
of  Christianity. 

As  citizens  of  the  United  States  we  enjoy  rights 
and  privileges;  but  that  same  citizenship  with  its 
privileges  lays  upon  us  duties  and  obligations.  If  we 
have  the  right  to  vote  there  goes  along  with  this  right, 
inevitably,  the  obligation  to  vote,  and  in  such  a  way  as 
to  conserve  the  common  weal.  ''Opportunity  and  the 
responsibility  which  it  measures,  with  respect  to  citi- 
zenship," says  Charles  E.  Hughes,^  "are  to  be  deter- 
mined not  merely  by  particular  political  rights,  but  by 
one's  relation  to  the  ultimate  power  which  upholds  or 
changes  constitutions,  makes  laws,  fixes  the  quality  of 
administrations  and  assures  or  prevents  progress." 

Our  citizenship  guarantees  us  liberty;  but  along 
with  the  right  to  liberty  comes  the  obligation  to  so 
exercise  that  liberty  as  in  no  way  to  interfere  with 

"Charles  E.  Hughes,  "Conditions  of  Progress  in  Democratic 
Government,"  p.  3. 

XO 

\ 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

the  liberties  and  rights  which  belong  to  others ;  other- 
wise our  guaranty  is  not  good.  Our  obligations  as 
well  as  our  privileges  are  thus  seen  to  be  civil  or 
social  as  well  as  political.  Freedom  of  speech  does 
not  carry  with  it  the  right  to  slander  or  misrepresent. 
It  does  involve  the  obligation  to  exercise  that  freedom 
as  opportunity  and  ability  permit  in  helping  to  create 
right  public  opinion  on  any  vital  community  or  na- 
tional interest.  The  same  principle  applies  to  freedom 
of  the  press. 

The  right  to  protection  in  one's  property  does  not 
carry  with  it  the  right  to  evade  payment  of  taxes  or 
in  any  way,  as  by  theft,  or  fraud,  or  unjust  charge, 
to  deprive  the  state  or  our  fellow  citizens  of  their 
property  rights.  Our  right  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness 
may  not  be  indulged  to  the  extent  that  it  deprives 
others  in  our  family,  our  community,  state  or  nation 
of  any  similar  right.  Our  civil  liberties  may  be  enum- 
erated as  follows:  Personal  security,  personal  free- 
dom ;  right  to  petition ;  religious  freedom ;  right  to  fair 
trial  in  case  of  arrest ;  property  rights.  Our  political 
liberty  is  summed  up  in  the  right  to  vote  and  eligibility 
to  office  by  election.  This  right,  however,  does  not 
extend  to  all  those  who  are  generally  designated  as 
citizens.  Among  the  limitations  and  qualifications 
upon  voting  are  the  following :  Age  limit ;  sex  distinc- 
tion; residence;  taxpaying;  educational.  These  limi ta- 
il 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tions  vary,  as  to  their  presence  or  application,  in  dif- 
ferent states,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out. 

Perhaps  no  better  summary  of  the  civil  or  social 
obligations  of  citizens  can  be  given  than  that  presented 
by  Mr.  Charles  E.  Hughes  in  the  book  already  re- 
ferred to.  The  list  as  he  gives  it  is,  in  substance,  as 
follows : 

(i)  To  extend  and  perfect  means  of  education. 

(2)  To  improve  conditions  of  labor. 

(3)  To  secure  better  housing  and  sanitation. 

(4)  To  stay  the  ravages  of  communicable  disease. 

(5)  To  provide  for  the  afflicted  and  defective  in  body 
and  mind. 

(6)  To  increase  reformatory  agencies  and  to  improve 
penal  methods. 

(7)  To  secure  higher  standards  of  public  service  and 
a  higher  sense  of  loyalty  to  the  common  weal. 

Justice  David  J.  Brewer*  would  have  us  consider 
the  obligations  of  citizenship  under  four  heads: 

1.  Obligations  of  citizenship  (a)  in  respect  to  law 
and  self-restraint ;  (b)  to  aid  in  unifying  the  heterogene- 
ous elements  of  population;  (c)  to  overcome  the  dan- 
gers from  the  inequalities  of  wealth. 

2.  The  obligation  of  good  character. 

3.  The   responsibility   of   service. 

4.  The  obligation  of  obedience. 

•  "American  Citizenship,"  Justice  David  J.  Brewer.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1909. 

12 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

It  thus  appears  that  the  individual  citizen,  in  order 
to  enjoy  liberty  in  its  broadest  and  fullest  sense,  must 
be  ready  and  willing  to  sacrifice  something  of  what  he 
might  abstractly  consider  his  right.  He  must  render 
service,  frequently  without  consciousness  of  its  obli- 
gations in  maintaining  in  effective  operation  the  in- 
stitutions essential  to  the  life  of  a  democracy.  This 
obligation  to  service  can  not  safely  be  shifted  or 
passed  as  unrecognized.  "Each  community  must  find 
in  itself  the  ways  and  means  of  organization  and  ex- 
pression of  its  prevailing  thought  as  to  what  social 
conditions  should  be  maintained  as  a  guaranty  of 
safety  to  the  essential  principles  of  democracy."  The 
individual  who  deliberately  neglects  to  do  his  part  in 
social  service  is  simply  throwing  so  much  more  in 
the  balance  that  weighs  against  the  ultimate  success  of 
a  democratic  organization  of  society. 

We  may  even  go  a  step  further  in  stating  the  quali- 
ties of  good  citizenship.  In  a  democracy  where  the 
general  welfare  demands  the  highest  possible  efficiency 
in  all  lines  of  service  it  clearly  becomes  a  function  of 
citizenship  for  each  individual  to  be  at  his  best,  as 
far  as  lies  in  his  power,  (i)  in  a  physical  way;  (2)  in 
a  mental  way  with  ability  to  think  clearly  and  to  act 
with  promptness  and  skill;  (3)  in  a  moral  way  so  as 
to  exert  a  good  influence.  To  attain  such  an  end  each 
individual  should  seek  to  perfect  himself  in  whatever 

13 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

line  of  native  ability  he  may  discover  in  himself.  This 
he  should  do  not  merely  in  his  own  personal  interest 
but  because  he  may  thus  become  most  useful  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  social  group. 

States  representing  the  choice  and  will  of  the  people 
in  matters  of  government  have  the  right,  on  the  basis 
of  the  principle  enunciated  in  the  preceding  paragraph, 
to  require  the  children  to  be  kept  clean,  to  be  properly 
fed,  and  to  receive  the  education,  within  the  limits  of 
their  individual  capacities,  necessary  to  the  realization 
of  such  a  standard  of  living  and  conduct. 

We  have  reviewed  thus  briefly  the  essential  facts  in 
regard  to  citizenship  in  order  to  have  before  us  a 
background  against  which  we  may  view  the  problem 
of  woman's  place  and  function  as  citizen  in  our  great 
American  democracy.  In  doing  this  we  have  felt  that, 
as  a  common  practice,  we  as  a  nation  have  stressed  too 
much  the  rights  of  citizens  to  the  neglect  of  the  cor- 
responding obligations. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Consider  in  detail  the  reasons  why  the  ballot  is  an  essen- 
tial element  for  full  citizenship  in  a  democracy. 

On  what  grounds  should  citizens  be  deprived  of  certain 
rights?    What  rights?    Why? 

14 


THE  MEANING  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

Why  is  such  emphasis  always  put  upon  intelligence  as  a 

qualification  for  citizenship  in  the  United  States? 
Discuss  the  necessity  of  such  a  process  as  naturalization. 

References  * 

Ashley,  Roscoe  L.  "The  New  Civics."  Chapters  I,  II 
and  V.     New  York,  Macmillans,  191 7. 

Baldwin,  Simeon  E.  "The  Relations  of  Education  to  Cit- 
izenship." New  Haven,  Yale  University  Lectures, 
1912. 

Beard,  Charles  A.  and  Mary  R.  "American  Citizenship." 
Chapter  I. 

Brewer,  Justice  David  J.  "American  Citizenship." 
Scribner's,  New  York,  1909. 

Hadley,  Arthur  T.  "The  Relation  Between  Freedom  and 
Responsibility  in  the  Evolution  of  Democratic  Gov- 
ernment."   Yale  Lectures,  New  York,  1903. 

Hughes,  Charles  E.  "Conditions  of  Progress  in  Demo- 
cratic Government."  New  Haven,  Yale  University 
Press,  1910. 

King,  Irving.  "Education  for  Social  Efficiency."  New 
York,  D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  1913. 

Kaye,  Percy  L.  "Readings  in  Civil  Government."  pp. 
94-110.    New  York,  Century  Co.,  1910. 

Maccunn,  John.    "Ethics  of  Citizenship."  Glasgow,  1907. 

Willoughby,  W.  W.  "Rights  and  Duties  of  American 
Citizens."    New  York,  1898. 


CHAPTER  II 
woman's  place  with  regard  to  citizenship 

Woman  was  one  of  the  earliest  burden  bearers  of 
the  race.  From  the  time  the  rudest  home  of  primi- 
tive man  was  established  her  work  there  made  of  her 
a  sort  of  jack-of -all-trades.  As  one  writer  has  put 
it,  "The  maternal  instinct,  the  strong  back,  the  deft 
hand,  the  aversion  to  aggressive  employment,  the 
conservative  spirit,  were  there  in  flower."^ 

It  early  became  woman's  part  to  secure  food  for 
her  family.  It  was  she  who,  in  doing  this,  first  in- 
vented ways  of  cultivating,  harvesting,  and  preserv- 
ing vegetable  food-stuffs.  She  also  developed  the 
textile  arts,  and  did  practically  all  of  the  weaving 
until  machinery  was  invented.  Similarly  it  fell  to 
woman  to  dress  the  skins  of  animals  out  of  which 
many  primitive  garments  were  fashioned.  She  also 
liad  a  part  in  the  domestication  of  animals.  In  ceram- 
ics it  was  woman  who  developed  not  only  the  forms 
and  uses  but  the  technic  of  manufacture  of  pottery. 
And  it  was  in  dealing  with  this  art  and  with  weaving 
"^  Mason,  W.  T  .  "Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture." 

i6 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

that  she  developed  the  simple  primitive  types  of  dec^ 
orative  art. 

Naturally,  in  her  long  hours  in  the  home,  the  womaa 
must  have  had  a  very  important  part  in  developing 
the  higher  art  of  speech,  v\^hile  she  also  took  an  equal 
part  with  man  in  the  establishment  of  the  family  as 
the  first  social  unit.  She  early  became  the  patroness 
of  religion,  and  hence  appears  in  many  primitive 
cults  in  the  character  of  priestess. 

This  much  we  must  say  of  the  primitive  status  of 
woman  in  order  to  appreciate  her  social  and  economic 
relation  to  those  movements  which  finally  produced 
the  state  of  civilized  peoples  and  developed  that  in- 
dividual relationship  implied  in  citizenship. 

Thus  through  the  long  ages  of  human  evolution  up 
to  the  earliest  known  types  of  civilization,  as  we  may 
justly  infer,  woman  shared  her  full  portion  of  the 
burdens  and  responsibilities  of  home  and  the  family. 
We  see  her  early  as  ruler  of  the  home  by  the  law  of 
mother-right.  We  see  her  as  leading  in  the  funda- 
mental arts,  in  food  getting,  in  the  business  affairs  of 
the  home.  At  once  producer,  artisan,  economist  and 
administrator,  she  certainly  measures  up  compara- 
tively well,  in  that  primitive  era,  to  our  corresponding 
modem  ideals  of  good  citizenship. 

It  is,  perhaps,  in  Egyptian  civilization  that  we  first 
find  woman  acting  her  part  as  true  citizen.     The 

17 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Egyptian  woman  was  actively  concerned  in  all  the 
affairs  of  her  day  except  war.  No  restraint  was 
placed  upon  her  actions.  She  appears  eating  and 
drinking  and  taking  her  part  freely  in  equal  enjoy- 
ment with  men  in  social  events  and  religious  cere- 
monies. She  was  permitted  to  engage  in  commerce  in 
her  own  right  and  to  make  contracts  for  her  own 
benefit.  She  could  bring  action  and  even  plead  her 
cause  in  the  courts.  She  practiced  the  art  of  medi- 
cine. As  priestess  she  had  authority  in  the  temples, 
and  frequently,  as  queen,  she  was  highest  in  authority 
in  the  land. 

Later,  in  Greece,  "the  citizen- women  of  Athens  had 
to  be  mothers  and  housewives — nothing  more,"  as 
Donaldson  tells  us.  Here  the  women  of  the  home 
were  completely  dominated  by  the  men.  But  there 
was  in  Athens  another  class  of  women,  highly  intel- 
lectual in  many  instances,  to  whom  was  permitted  the 
same  larger  freedom  enjoyed  by  the  women  of  Egypt. 
These  women  were  not  citizen-women.  They  might 
be  either  foreigners  or  slaves.  The  code  of  social 
ethics  under  which  these  women  lived  was  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  citizen-women,  as  well  as  of 
the  women  of  modern  civilization. 

The  status  of  woman  was  much  the  same  in  earlier 
Roman  days  as  in  Athens.  Later,  however,  as  the 
empire  expanded  and  as  citizenship  was  extended  to 

i8 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

larger  numbers,  the  Roman  matrons  acquired  a  much 
wider  freedom  of  social  intercourse.  They  were 
much  out  of  doors,  walking  and  driving ;  or  they  might 
be  seen  dining  in  the  company  of  men.  They  studied 
literature  and  philosophy  and  had  a  part  in  many 
political  affairs.  In  the  courts  they  were  allowed  to 
defend  their  own  cases  at  law.  In  the  provinces  they 
frequently  aided  their  husbands  in  government  affairs 
or  in  the  writing  of  books. 

We  have  seen  in  the  first  chapter  that  when  the 
Roman  Empire  gave  way  to  the  organization  of  mod- 
ern nations  the  Roman  law  of  citizenship  was,  for  the 
most  part,  assumed  by  these  new  states.  There  were, 
however,  at  least  two  forces  which  tended  to  modify 
these  laws  in  effect,  especially  as  related  to  the  status 
of  the  woman-citizen.  These  two  forces  were  ( i )  the 
barbaric  customs  of  western  Europe,  and  especially 
with  reference  to  marriage;  and  (2)  the  development 
of  asceticism  among  Christians.  The  latter,  in  par- 
ticular, through  the  false  notions  of  sex  which  it  es- 
tablished, with  promises  of  special  future  rewards 
for  those  who  practiced  celibacy,  became  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  degradation  of  woman.  This  change 
at  once  limited  the  liberty  and  gave  greatly  inferior 
rank  to  woman  as  compared  with  man.  Thus  the  old 
freedom  and  equality  which  had  marked  the  later  mid- 
dle Roman  period  was  lost  to  civilization  for  a  time. 

19 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

The  present  day  still  witnesses  the  struggle  of  woman 
to  regain  this  lost  ground  and  still  preserve  a  highly 
moral  social  code  for  the  sexes. 

Prior  to  1835  there  was  no  discrimination  against 
women  in  the  suffrage  laws  of  England.  Up  to  that 
date  it  appears  that  some  women  actually  voted  at  mu- 
nicipal elections.  From  1835  to  1869  they  were  with- 
out any  such  rights ;  but  in  the  latter  year  the  women 
of  England,  Scotland  and  Wales  were  again  given 
the  right  to  vote  at  municipal  elections.  English 
women  also  have  the  right  to  hold  certain  minor  of- 
fices, as  guardians  of  the  poor,  overseers,  way  war- 
dens, church  wardens,  and  school  board  members. 
Since  1907  unmarried  women  may  hold  office  in  bor- 
ough and  county  councils,  but  married  women  may 
hold  such  offices  only  in  the  city  of  London. 

We  may  well  consider  here  the  significance  of  the 
statement  by  Aristotle  previously  quoted:  "But  the 
full  and  complete  definition  of  a  citizen  is  confined  to 
those  who  participate  in  the  governing  power,  either 
by  themselves  or  their  representatives."  It  is  hardly 
to  be  expected  that,  in  a  democratic  form  of  govern- 
ment, those  citizens  who  have  only  limited  political 
rights  or  none  at  all  will  long  remain  unrestricted 
in  their  civil  or  social  rights,  if,  indeed,  they  are 
not  deprived  of  some  of  them  altogether.  The  con- 
cessions as  to  suffrage  thus  made  in  England,  as  cited 

20 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

above,  came  after  a  long  struggle  and  a  plea,  oft  reit- 
erated, for  the  common  right  of  English  subjects  to 
representation  in  taxation. 

The  withholding  from  women  of  the  right  of  the 
ballot  affects  not  only  their  property  rights,  but  also 
woman's  status  in  marriage  and  in  the  family,  her 
educational  rights,  her  business  and  professional  status, 
and  in  some  cases  even  her  protection  from  personal 
injury.  No  class  in  society,  whether  the  grouping  be 
a  result  of  sex,  industry,  race,  or  wealth,  can  hope 
to  possess  in  full  the  enjoyment  of  all  the  civil  rights 
imder  a  free  government  if  deprived,  wholly  or  even 
in  part,  of  those  political  rights  under  that  govern- 
ment enjoyed  by  its  electorate. 

The  British  Colonies  of  Canada,  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  show  a  decidedly  favorable  attitude  towards 
woman  suffrage. 

In  Canada  women  have  municipal  suffrage.  In  the 
most  of  Canada  women  have  parliamentary  suffrage 
and  some  women  have  held  seats  in  Parliaments.  They 
also  have  school  suffrage  wherever  it  exists,  and  eligi- 
bility except  in  Quebec. 

In  New  Zealand  women  have  school  board  suffrage 
and  eligibility.  All  women  ratepayers  and  the  wives 
of  ratepayers  have  municipal  suffrage.  Women  also 
have  parliamentary  suffrage  but  not  eligibility.  In  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  women  have  parliamen- 

21 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tary  suffrage  and  eligibility  on  equal  terms  with  men. 
In  some  provinces  of  Australia  women  have  a  slightly 
more  limited  suffrage  than  in  others. 

In  Scandinavian  countries  the  freedom  of  women 
has  been  more  completely  preserved  according  to  the 
ancient  custom  among  Germanic  races  than  anywhere 
else  in  Europe.  In  Finland  and  Norway  the  politi- 
cal rights  of  women  include  the  franchise,  in  state  as 
well  as  municipal  affairs.  In  Finland  all  women  over 
twenty-four  years  of  age  may  vote.  In  Norway  the 
suffrage  is  limited  to  women  who  are  taxpayers.  In 
Sweden  and  Denmark  the  right  of  suffrage  extends 
only  to  municipal  elections.  Educationally  women  are 
far  advanced  in  these  countries,  and  considerable  lati- 
tude is  permitted  for  entering  the  professions  most 
frequently  reserved  to  males. 

Under  the  Code  Napoleon,  woman  in  France  was 
placed  completely  under  the  guardianship  of  her  hus- 
band. The  modern  French  code  of  civil  rights  shows 
little  change.  Women  may  now  be  witnesses  to  civil 
transactions,  as  a  marriage  contract ;  a  married  woman 
may  open  a  savings  account  in  her  maiden  name  but 
the  husband  may  take  such  steps  as  to  prevent  her  from 
drawing  it  out;  a  wife's  earnings  are  her  own.  France 
is,  however,  quite  liberal  in  the  matter  of  woman's 
education;  but  only  subordinate  positions  in  the  civil 
service  are  open  to  her.     French  women  now  have 

22 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

some  forms  of  suffrage  in  education,  matters  of  em- 
ployment, in  the  council  of  experts,  commerce,  Church 
and  Mutual  Insurance.  They  are  eligible  for  ap- 
pointment to  relief  councils,  school  and  charity  com- 
mittees. 

Referring  to  the  situation  in  Germany  a  writer  as 
late  as  1909  says  :^  "The  theory  of  the  rights  of  man 
and  of  citizens  were  never  appHed  by  German  Liberal- 
ism to  woman  in  a  broad  sense."  In  a  number  of  the 
German  states  women  taxpayers  are  permitted  to 
exercise  the  right  of  municipal  suffrage  by  proxy.  In 
the  matter  of  education  the  conservatism  of  Germany 
in  giving  opportunity  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  extended  com- 
ment here.  Conditions  as  to  civil  and  political  rights 
are  only  slightly  better  in  German  Austria. 

In  Switzerland  women  enjoy  good  educational  ad- 
vantages; but  in  respect  to  the  ballot  she  votes  only 
in  municipal  affairs,  and  then  only  in  those  localities 
from  which  the  male  population  is  absent  at  work  a 
large  part  of  the  year.  Woman's  social  status  in 
Switzerland  with  respect  to  rights  and  privileges  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  English  women. 

As  regards  woman's  position  in  the  United  States 
Morse  wrote  in  1881 :  "With  respect  to  women  the 

'Dr.  Kathe  Schirmacher,  "The  Modern  Woman's  Rights 
Movement,"  p.  144. 

23 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

title  of  citizen  can  apply  to  them  only  to  the  extent  to 
which  they  enjoy  certain  rights,  in  the  character  of 
members  of  the  family  of  a  citizen,  properly  so  called ; 
and  in  general  all  this  depends  upon  the  laws  and  par- 
ticular customs  of  each  state."  However,  at  another 
point  he  adds:  "In  this  country  the  statutes  generally 
recognize  the  emancipation  of  woman  from  the  domi- 
nation of  the  husband  as  under  the  old  Roman  law." 

In  nine  of  the  thirteen  original  states  of  the  Union 
we  are  told  that  women  had  the  right  to  vote  in  munici- 
pal and  state  affairs.  The  four  states  not  granting  this 
right  were  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  New  York 
and  Virginia.  When  new  constitutions  were  adopted, 
and  after  the  constitutional  convention  had  refused  to 
include  the  right  of  suffrage  for  women  in  the  Federal 
Constitution,  the  rights  previously  granted  in  the  nine 
states  referred  to  were  also  omitted  where  new  State 
constitutions  were  written. 

Since  1848,  the  date  of  the  first  convention  for  the 
discussion  of  suffrage  for  women,  a  persistent  cam- 
paign has  been  waged  under  the  leadership  of  numbers 
of  leading  women  and  men  of  the  times.  As  a  result 
woman's  condition  in  this  country  has  been  greatly 
improved  both  socially  and  politically.  According  to 
Harriet  Martineau  there  were  in  1840  only  seven  em- 
ployments open  to  women  in  the  United  States.  These 
were  teaching,  needlework,  keeping  boarders,  working 

24 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

in  cotton  mills  and  book  binderies,  type-setting  and 
household  service.  From  the  wide  range  of  occupa- 
tions and  professions  now  open  to  women  the  prog- 
ress in  this  direction  is  evident.  Similarly  conditions 
for  the  education  of  women  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved. 

As  regards  woman's  political  status  twelve  states 
now  grant  her  full  suffrage,  both  active  and  passive,' 
and  nine  other  states  grant  limited  suffrage  in  some 
form.  The  present  struggle  includes  the  various  state 
movements  for  suffrage  through  state  legislation  or 
constitutional  amendment  and  also  the  national  move- 
ment for  woman  suffrage  through  amendment  of  the 
Federal  Constitution. 

In  order  now  to  estimate  the  extent  to  which  woman 
in  the  United  States  is  prepared  to  meet  the  obliga- 
tions and  duties  of  citizenship  we  may  look  to  two 
sources:  (i)  To  the  states  which  have  given  her  the 
ballot  in  order  to  measure  her  ability  to  exercise  this 
essential  function  of  a  true  citizen  of  a  democracy 
in  the  interests  of  public  well-being.  (2)  To  the 
response  woman  is  making  to  the  social  demands 
about  her. 

As  to  woman's  use  of  the  ballot  all  available  re- 
ports from  the  states  where  she  has  exercised  the 

*  Passive  suffrage  refers  to  the  right  to  hold  elective  offices, 
while  active  suffrage  is  the  right  to  vote  and  hold  office. 

25 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

franchise  seem  to  be  to  her  credit  as  compared  with 
the  voting  of  men.  In  those  states  where  sufficient 
time  has  elapsed  to  enable  her  to  organize  the  work 
numerous  important  reforms  are  to  be  noted  as  a  re- 
sult of  her  political  activity. 

The  matter  of  the  civic  obligations  of  women  is 
much  more  complex  and,  in  those  states  where  the 
suffrage  is  extended  to  her,  is  often  inseparable  from 
her  political  activity.  Indeed,  to  a  considerable  degree, 
the  civic  service  she  has  been  able  to  render  in  all 
states  has  been  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  results 
of  her  political  service  in  a  few  states ;  for  much  that 
women's  civic  organizations  have  accomplished  is  due 
to  the  lessons  in  organization  which  the  suffrage  states 
have  extended  to  women  of  all  the  states. 

In  order  to  get  to  the  heart  of  the  situation  as  to 
woman's  part  in  social  service  we  shall  need  to  refer 
to  statistics.  The  following  table  gives  the  per  cents 
of  males  and  females  engaged  in  gainful  occupations 
as  shown  by  the  census  of  1910: 

Male  Female 

All   occupations    78.8  21.2 

Agricultural  pursuits 85.6  14.7 

Professional    service. 63.1  36.9 

Domestic  and  personal  service. 51. i  48.9 

Trade  and  transportation 84.2  15.8 

Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits.  .83.6  16.4 

26 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

Of  the  total  population  ten  years  of  age  and  over 
53.3  per  cent  were  engaged  in  gainful  pursuits,  of 
which  78.8  per  cent  were  males  and  21.2  per  cent  fe- 
males. These  figures  do  not  include  women  as  wives 
and  mothers  engaged  in  home  building  and  rearing  of 
families  except  in  cases  where  these  are  also  bread- 
winners. The  number  of  married  women  for  the  same 
period  was  over  seventeen  and  a  half  millions.  Thus 
it  would  appear  that  woman  is  doing  her  full  share 
as  far  as  economic  requirements  are  concerned.  When 
we  consider  the  wide  range  of  occupations,  including 
eleven  different  professional  groups,  in  which  woman 
is  now  engaged,  as  compared  with  the  seven  given  in 
1840,  her  advancement  in  respect  to  opportunities  to 
serve  is  certainly  most  remarkable. 

Again,  if  we  consider  woman^s  relation  to  educa- 
tion the  manner  in  which  she  meets  this  obligation  is 
no  less  remarkable.  The  number  of  illiterate  persons 
in  the  United  States  ten  years  of  age  and  above 
is,  for  1910,  as  follows:  Males  2,814,950;  females 
2,701,213.  Thus  the  women  outclass  the  men  by  113,- 
737.  As  another  index  of  educational  conditions  the 
following  figures  are  of  interest:  School  attendance, 
15  to  20  years  of  age,  male  5,426,654;  female  5,491,- 
571.  Twenty-one  years  of  age  and  over:  male  179,- 
237;  female  134,019.  These  figures  are  for  1910.  In 
191 5  there  were  enrolled  in  the  13,810  public  and 

27 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

private  four-year  high  schools  670,759  boys  and  805,- 
319  girls.  The  enrollment  for  the  same  year  in  uni- 
versities, colleges  and  technological  institutions  gave, 
of  undergraduates,  79,452  men  and  50,606  women; 
of  graduate  students  6,998  men  and  3,315  w^omen. 
The  enrollment  in  professional  schools  stood  as  fol- 
lows: 

Men        Women 

Theological  schools , io,i35  453 

Law     21,324  599 

Schools  of  Medicine i4)047  635 

Schools  of  Dentistry 9»452  195 

Schools  of  Pharmacy 5,805  302 

PubUc  Normal  Schools 18,358  75,942 

Evidently  in  the  field  of  education  our  girls  and 
young  women  are  making  good  use  of  their  oppor- 
tunities in  seeking  to  qualify  educationally  for  the 
duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship. 

Women  sensed  very  early  in  the  movement  the 
chief  source  of  opposition, — the  organized  traffic  in 
alcoholic  liquors.  Under  the  leadership  of  such  women 
as  Frances  E.  Willard  the  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union  was  organized.  Quickly  grasping  the 
strategics  of  the  situation  a  campaign  was  begun  for 
the  teaching  of  temperance  in  the  public  schools.  Thus 
was  generated  the  great  silent  force  which  is  now  ex- 
pressing itself  in  votes  against  the  traffic,  and  rapidly 

28 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

freeing  the  country  from  the  evils  of  the  drink  habit. 

Then  there  are  numerous  organizations  having  as 
their  aim  a  purpose  similar  to  that  of  the  National 
American  Woman  Suffrage  Association.  Among 
these  are  the  Woman's  Party,  the  Friends'  Equal 
Rights  Association,  the  College  Equal  Suffrage  League 
and  the  Equal  Franchise  League.  Besides  these  gen- 
eral organizations  there  are  numerous  local  city  and 
state  suffrage  leagues  and  federations. 

In  further  meeting  her  social  and  civic  responsi- 
bilities woman  has  organized  extensively  and  along 
various  lines.  In  the  field  of  industry  and  economics 
we  find  the  Woman's  National  Trade  Union  League, 
the  National  Consumers'  League,  and  the  Committee 
on  Women's  Work  for  the  investigation  of  industrial 
conditions  under  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 

Then  there  are  various  patriotic  organizations,  such 
as  the  Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution,  which 
are  contributing  to  those  influences  which  go  to  build 
up  and  intensify  the  American  spirit  of  patriotism. 
Just  now  we  see  women  especially  active  in  the  Red 
Cross  service,  devoting  time  and  means  to  study,  to 
sewing  and  knitting,  and  to  various  other  means  of 
providing  for  the  better  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
from  the  fields  of  battle. 

A  very  distinct  force  in  the  field  of  woman's  ef- 
forts is  the  National  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs. 

29 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Forty-eight  states  now  have  federated  club  organiza- 
tion, giving  a  total  membership  of  about  900,000.  The 
work  of  these  clubs  may  be  classed  under  three  gen- 
eral heads :  ( i )  Educational,  for  the  improvement  of 
the  members;  (2)  Social;  (3)  Practical.  Under  the 
last  head  are  various  philanthropic  movements;  or- 
ganized effort  at  civic  betterment;  the  fostering  of 
schools  and  aid  in  reorganizing  the  school  work  in 
the  interests  of  the  masses;  developing  library  facili- 
ties; concerted  action  for  securing  legislation,  espe- 
cially in  behalf  of  women  and  children. 

This  national  federation  of  clubs  cooperates,  also, 
with  similar  groups  in  other  countries,  thus  seeking 
the  universal  betterment  of  women. 

When  we  put  with  these  conditions  as  they  appear 
in  the  active  civic  life  of  women,  the  fact  that  out  of 
the  seventeen  and  a  half  millions  of  married  women 
(statistics  of  1910)  there  are  some  millions  of  moth- 
ers and  housewives  who  are  devoting  all  their  time, 
strength  and  talents  to  their  home  and  children,  it 
does  not  appear  that  woman  is  any  less  neglectful 
than  man  of  those  fundamental  social  obligations  enu- 
merated in  the  first  chapter. 

And  now  as  the  changed  conditions  of  a  foreign  war 
confront  the  nation  our  women  are  awake  and  doing. 
They  are  cooperating  not  only  in  the  Red  Cross  work 
but  also  in  food  conservation  and  in  all  the  various 

30 


WOMAN'S  PLACE 

movements  for  the  proper  feeding  and  care  of  the 
men  of  our  vast  new  army  and  of  the  wives  and  chil- 
dren who  remain  at  home.  And  we  know  that  no 
matter  how  severe  may  be  the  test  upon  the  resources 
and  the  Hfe  of  the  nation  these  same  women  will  stand 
ever  ready,  organized,  competent,  and  willing,  with 
ready  hands  to  do  and  quick  minds  to  plan  and  suggest, 
as  well  as  with  tender  hearts  to  share  with  others  all 
that  may  be  of  misery  and  suffering. 


Problems  for  Stxjdy  and  Discussion 

Effect  on  the  civic  and  social  rights  of  woman  caused 

by  withholding  the  ballot  from  her. 
Results  of  suffrage  in  Scandinavian  countries  and  in 

New  Zealand. 
A  study  of  woman  suffrage  in  any  one  or  several  States 

of  the  Union  where  it  is  in  force. 
Study  the  points  wherein  women  seem  to  fall  short  of 

qualifying   for   citizenship   and   compare   this   with 

similar  facts  about  men. 

References 

Allen.     "Woman's   Part   in  Government  Whether  She 

Votes  or  Not."    New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  and  Co., 

1912. 
Christie,  Jane  J.     "The  Advance  of  Woman  from  the 

Earliest  Times  to  the  Present."     Philadelphia,  Lip- 

pincotts,  1912. 

31 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Dealey,  James  Q.  "The  Family  in  its  Sociological  As- 
pects/*   Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.,  1912. 

Donaldson,  James.  "Woman,  Her  Position  and  Life  in 
Ancient  Greece  and  Rome."  New  York,  Longmans, 
1907. 

Mason,  O.  T.  "Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture." 
New  York,  D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  1894. 

Saluby,  Caleb  W.  "Parenthood  and  Race  Culture."  New 
York,  Moffat,  Yard  and  Co.,  1909. 

Starcke.  "The  Primitive  Family."  International  Scien- 
tific Series,  vol.  65.    New  York,  1889. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    WOMAN^S    SUFFRAGE    MOVEMENT    IN    THE 
UNITED  STATES 

The  movement  having  as  its  objective  the  attain- 
ment of  suffrage  for  women  began  in  this  country 
with  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1787.  At  that 
time  a  comparatively  small  number  of  far  seeing 
women  conceived  the  idea  of  a  Federal  constitutional 
provision  which  should  insure  votes  for  women  in  all 
the  states.  In  fact,  the  record  seems  to  show  that 
only  one  woman,  Abigail  Adams,  asked  to  have  the 
rights  of  women  safeguarded  in  the  Constitution.  But 
the  Convention  ruled  that  the  rights  of  citizenship 
should  be  determined  by  the  respective  states;  and  so 
nothing  was  said  as  to  the  rights  of  women  and  nothing 
was  written  in  the  Constitution  either  for  or  against 
votes  for  women. 

The  implication  seemed  to  be,  however,  that  women 
should  not  be  included  in  the  electorate.  When  the 
states  came  to  the  rewriting  of  their  constitutions  the 
nine  which,  under  previous  conditions,  had  made  no 
discrimination  in  the  wording  of  their  constitutions 

33 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

now  wrote  the  word  male  when  designating  what  citi- 
zens should  vote.  Thus  not  only  did  women  fail  to 
get  recognition  in  the  new  national  constitution,  but 
even  in  the  states  they  were  definitely  excluded  from 
the  suffrage.  It  is  doubtless  true,  as  some  one  has 
said,  that  the  women  of  this  early  time  did  not  see 
the  necessity  for  women's  votes  and  so  neglected  this 
first  opportunity  for  constitutional  provisions  in  the 
interests  of  women.  Thus  the  men  concluded  that  in 
framing  the  fundamental  laws  of  states  and  of  the  na- 
tion they  alone  should  have  consideration. 

The  next  important  event  came  in  connection  with 
the  anti-slavery,  movement.  The  women  were  among 
the  most  zealous  supporters  of  this  movement  from 
its  beginning,  and  this  brought  a  number  of  them  prom- 
inently into  public  affairs.  But  even  here  the  feeling 
of  men  ran  high  against  what  they  considered  the 
serious  impropriety  of  women  speaking  in  public  to 
promiscuous  audiences.  It  seems  incredible  that  for 
such  an  imagined  offense  women  should  have  received 
such  harsh  treatment  at  the  hands  of  men  as  is  re- 
ported to  have  been  given  to  Abby  Kelly,  Angeline 
Grimke,  and  others  who  thus  essayed  to  speak. 

In  1840  a  call  came  for  delegates  from  the  United 
Stat-es  to  attend  an  anti-slavery  convention  to  be  held 
in  England.  Among  the  delegates  chosen  were  three 
women,  Lucretia  Mott,  called  the  mother  of  the  suf- 

34 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

rage  movement,  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton,  and  Eliza- 
beth Pease.  When  the  convention  assembled  the  Eng- 
lish delegates  objected  to  having  women,  as  delegates, 
seated  in  the  convention,  and  the  three  women  were 
shown  to  seats  in  the  gallery.  We  are  told  that  Wil- 
liam Lloyd  Garrison  silently  registered  a  protest  by 
sitting  with  the  women  in  the  gallery. 

The  first  Woman's  Rights  Convention  met  in  1848 
at  Seneca  Falls,  New  York.  The  call  for  this  meeting 
was  signed  by  Lucretia  Mott  and  Elizabeth  Cady  Stan- 
ton. The  convention  numbered  among  its  active  mem- 
bers such  men  and  women  as  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
Julia  Ward  Howe,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Mary  A. 
Livermore,  George  William  Curtis,  Clara  Barton  and 
Mrs.  Lucy  Stone. 

The  chief  action  of  this  first  convention  was  the 
adoption  of  a  "Declaration  of  Sentiments,"  most  of 
which  is  here  given  as  follows: 

DECLARATION  OF  SENTIMENTS 

The  history  of  mankind  is  a  history  of  repeated  in- 
juries and  usurpations  on  the  part  of  man  towards  wom- 
an, having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  ab- 
solute tyranny  over  her.  To  prove  this  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  never  permitted  her  to  exercise  her  inalienable 
right  to  the  elective  franchise. 

He  has  compelled  her  to  submit  to  laws  in  the  forma- 
tion of  which  she  had  no  voice. 

35 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

He  has  withheld  from  her  rights  which  are  given  to 
the  most  ignorant  and  degraded  men — ^both  natives  and 
foreigners. 

Having  deprived  her  of  this  first  right  of  a  citizen,  the 
elective  franchise,  thereby  leaving  her  without  repre- 
sentation in  the  halls  of  legislation,  he  has  oppressed  her 
on  all  sides. 

He  has  made  her,  if  married,  in  the  eye  of  the  law, 
civilly  dead. 

He  has  taken  from  her  all  right  in  property,  even  to 
the  wages  she  earns. 

He  has  so  framed  the  laws  of  divorce  as  to  what 
shall  be  the  proper  causes,  and,  in  case  of  separation,  to 
whom  the  guardianship  of  the  children  shall  be  given,  as 
to  be  wholly  regardless  of  the  happiness  of  women — the 
law  in  all  cases  going  upon  a  false  supposition  of  the 
supremacy  of  man,  and  giving  all  power  into  his  hands. 

After  depriving  her  of  all  rights  as  a  married  woman, 
if  single  and  the  owner  of  property,  he  has  taxed  her 
to  support  a  government  which  recognizes  her  only  when 
her  property  can  be  made  profitable  to  it. 

He  has  monopolized  nearly  all  the  profitable  employ- 
ments and  from  those  she  is  permitted  to  follow  she 
receives  but  a  scanty  remuneration.  He  closes  against 
her  all  the  avenues  of  wealth  and  distinction  which  he 
considers  most  honorable  to  himself.  As  teacher  of 
theology,  medicine,  or  law  she  is  not  known. 

He  has  denied  her  facilities  for  obtaining  a  thorough 
education,  all  colleges  being  closed  to  her. 

He  allows  her  in  church,  as  well  as  in  state,  but  a 
a  subordinate  position,  claiming  Apostolic  authority  for 
her  exclusion  from  the  ministry  and,  with  some  excep- 
tions, from  any  public  participation  in  the  affairs  of  the 
church. 

36 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

He  has  created  a  false  public  sentiment  by  giving  to 
the  world  a  different  code  of  morals  for  men  and  women, 
by  which  moral  delinquencies  which  exclude  women  from 
society  are  not  only  tolerated  but  deemed  of  little  account 
in  man. 

He  has  usurped  the  prerogative  of  Jehovah  himself, 
claiming  it  as  his  right  to  assign  for  her  a  sphere  of 
action,  when  that  belongs  to  her  conscience  and  her  God. 

He  has  endeavored,  in  every  way  that  he  could,  to  de- 
stroy her  confidence  in  her  own  powers,  to  lessen  her 
self-respect,  and  to  make  her  willing  to  lead  a  dependent 
and  abject  life. 

Now,  in  view  of  this  disfranchisement  of  one  half  the 
people  of  this  country,  their  social  and  religious  degrada- 
tion; in  view  of  the  unjust  laws  mentioned,  and  because 
women  do  feel  themselves  aggrieved,  oppressed  and 
fraudulently  deprived  of  their  most  sacred  rights,  we  in- 
sist that  they  have  immediate  admission  to  all  rights 
and  privileges  which  belong  to  them  as  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

Ida  M.  Tarbell^  has  characterized  this  declaration, 
which  she  discusses  as  the  American  woman's  first 
declaration  of  independence,  a  "call  to  war  on  man." 
The  same  writer  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  some 
things  were  lost  sight  of  by  the  framers  of  the  "Dec- 
laration." In  the  first  place  it  is  pointed  out  that  uni- 
versal male  suffrage  was  still  in  the  stage  of  experi- 
mentation according  to  many  good  men.    Already  the 

**The  American  Woman,  Her  First  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence," Ida  M.  Tarbell,  American  Magazine,  69:468-81. 

37 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

attack  had  been  made  by  men  on  the  atrocious  civil 
laws  referred  to  as  affecting  women.  The  political 
education  of  woman  had  been  demanded  by  men  from 
the  beginning  as  essential  to  right  conditions  in  a 
democracy.  In  no  other  single  particular,  in  fact,  had 
there  been  as  great  advancement  as  in  the  education 
of  women. 

Yet  granting  the  soundness  of  these  strictures  one 
is  impressed  in  carefully  reading  the  various  articles 
of  the  "Declaration,"  by  the  clearness  and  directness 
of  the  attack,  and  also  by  the  number  of  points 
enumerated  which  still  call  for  remedy.  We  may 
well  remember,  also,  that  these  women  and  the  men 
who  cooperated  with  them  were  just  entering  upon 
a  great  struggle  for  human  freedom  and  that  they 
were  still  smarting  under  the  rebuffs  received  at  the 
hands  of  men  whenever  they  sought  a  public  hearing 
in  advocacy  of  remedial  action  for  their  own  and 
others'  wrongs. 

In  1836  Lincoln  is  reported  to  have  made  the  fol- 
lowing comment  on  the  subject:  *'I  go  for  all  sharing 
the  privileges  of  the  government  who  assist  in  bear- 
ing its  burdens.  Consequently  I  go  for  admitting  all 
whites  to  the  right  of  suffrage  who  pay  taxes  or  bear 
arms  (by  no  means  excluding  females)."  It  would 
possibly  be  a  fair  statement  to  add  that  this  comment 
probably  expressed   fairly  well  the  sentiment  of  a 

38 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

majority  of  the  thoughtful  men  of  the  time  in  the 
United  States. 

Meanwhile  the  struggle  was  on.  The  movement, 
now  a  campaign  to  create  public  sentiment,  went  for- 
ward with  varying  degrees  of  success,  but  with  new 
leaders  arising  from  time  to  time,  among  whom  Susan 
B.  Anthony  stands  out  as  a  leader  of  great  power.  A 
slow  but  steady  increase  of  followers  ensued  until  the 
Civil  War  interrupted  all  other  considerations  in  the 
sterner  demands  upon  the  country's  resources,  in- 
cluding its  men  and  women.  While  women  did  not  ac- 
tually ''bear  arms"  to  any  great  extent  they  must  have 
demonstrated  to  the  minds  of  Lincoln  and  all  others 
possessed  of  discernment  that  there  is  other  work  to 
be  done  in  time  of  war,  perhaps  no  less  essential 
to  the  success  of  an  army  than  the  bearing  of  arms  on 
fields  of  battle. 

Then  came  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  consti- 
tution in  1870.  When  the  nation  incorporated  in  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  land  the  declaration  that 
"The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States 
or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous 
condition  of  servitude,"  the  women  realized  perhaps 
more  fully  than  ever  before  how  great  a  premium  men 
were  willing  to  place  on  manhood  suffrage.  Is  it  to 
be  wondered  at  that  women  of  high  intelligence  who 

39 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

had  studied  this  problem  and  who  had  struggled  un- 
remittingly for  their  rights  rebelled  against  such  an  act  ? 
Without  regard  to  the  particular  situation  which 
led  to  the  adoption  of  this  amendment  the  fact  re- 
mains that  the  Federal  Constitution  thus  assumed 
the  determination  of  who  are  to  be  full  citizens  of 
the  United  States.  The  friends  of  suffrage  immedi- 
ately took  up  the  campaign.  They  referred  back  to 
the  preamble  of  the  constitution  and  to  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  as  furnishing  ample  grounds  for 
their  claims.  There  followed  a  determined  strug- 
gle for  the  ballot  under  this  interpretation  of  the  con- 
stitution as  amended.  In  March,  1870,  Marilla  M. 
Ricker  of  Dover,  New  Hampshire,  undertook  to  vote, 
and  in  April  of  the  next  year  Nannette  G.  Gardner, 
of  Detroit,  Michigan,  also  sought  the  privilege.  The 
same  year  Sara  Andrews  Spencer  and  Sarah  E.  Web- 
ster with  seventy  other  women  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia sought  to  register  as  voters  but  were  refused. 
Their  case  was  taken  to  the  courts  and  finally  met 
with  an  adverse  decision  from  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States.  Ellen  Rand  VanValkenburg  of 
Santa  Cruz,  California;  Carrie  S.  Burnham  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  Mrs.  Catharine  V.  Waite  of  Illinois,  were 
also  refused  permission  to  vote  in  1871.  Mrs.  Sarah 
M.  T.  Huntington  met  with  a  similar  refusal  at  Nor- 
walk,  Connecticut.     At  Nyack,   New  York,  and  at 

40 


WOMAN^S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

Toledo,  Ohio,  however,  several  women  succeeded  in 
voting. 

It  was  in  November,  1872,  that  Susan  B.  Anthony 
and  six  other  women  voted  in  Rochester,  New  York, 
by  swearing  in  their  votes,  all  except  one,  a  Quaker- 
ess, who  simply  promised  to  tell  the  truth.  They  were 
arrested  for  illegal  voting.  After  a  long  course 
through  the  courts  the  final  decision  against  the 
women  was  rendered  by  Chief  Justice  Waite  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court.  It  was  during  this 
same  year  of  1872  that  the  case  of  Virginia  L.  Minor 
of  Missouri  also  found  its  way  into  the  courts  for  a 
similar  cause. 

Two  lines  of  action  now  presented  themselves:  To 
secure  legislation  and  constitutional  amendments  by 
states — a  long  and  tedious  process  because  of  the  ex- 
treme conservatism  of  the  older  and  more  populous 
states  and  also  because  of  the  in  frequency  of  change, 
in  many  instances,  of  state  constitutions.  The  alter- 
native course  was  to  undertake  to  secure  a  sixteenth 
amendment  to  the  Federal  Constitution. 

The  stock  argimients  against  suffrage  for  women 
were,  and  are: 

(i)  The  majority  of  women  do  not  wish  the  right  to 
vote. 

(2)  Women  will  use  the  right,  if  given  them,  only  to  a 
limited  extent. 

41 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

(3)  Only  women  of  ill  repute  will  vote. 

(4)  Women  are  married,  loved,  and  provided  for  by 
the  men  who  will  right  their  wrongs. 

(5)  Women  have  small  children  and  home  duties  far 
more  important  than  politics. 

(6)  Women,  when  they  have  secured  political  rights, 
will  plunge  into  politics  and  neglect  their  homes. 

(7)  Women  can  not  fight  and  therefore  must  not  vote. 

(8)  The  benefits  arising  from  woman's  suffrage  are 
meager.    Why  not  let  well  enough  alone? 

The  answers  to  these  arguments  are : 

(i)  It  is  true  that  women  have  awakened  but  slowly 
to  the  Importance  of  the  ballot.  This  is  due  to  the  gen- 
erations of  education  to  a  different  ideal.  To-day  the 
movement  for  suffrage  is  wide-spread  and  includes  all 
classes  of  women. 

(2)  The  experience  of  states  and  countries  where  the 
ballot  has  been  given  to  women  is  proof  to  the  contrary. 

(3)  The  answer  is  found  again  in  the  actual  practice 
which  is  emphatically  against  such  a  view. 

(4)  Not  all  women  are  married.  Many  who  have  been 
are  widows.  Besides  history  does  not  show  that  men 
alone  could  be  depended  upon  to  right  woman's  wrongs. 

(5)  Again,  it  is  not  true  that  all  women  have  chil- 
dren and  home  duties;  but  even  where  this  is  true  a 
knowledge  of  public  affairs  aids  greatly  in  their  duties 
as  teachers  of  the  young. 

(6)  This  has  never  happened  yet  where  women  have 
been  given  suffrage  rights. 

(7)  Not  all  citizens  are  called  on  to  fight  in  case  of 
war.  There  are  many  other  forms  of  service  necessary 
to  successful  warfare,  and  which  thousands  of  women 

42 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

have  rendered  and  are  rendering  today.    Russian  women 
have  demonstrated  that  women  can  fight  if  necessary. 

(8)  The  whole  history  of  woman  and  of  the  suffrage 
movement  proves  that  the  benefits  are  great  and  far 
reaching  not  only  to  women  but  to  society  as  a  whole. 

The  radical  movement  on  the  part  of  the  women 
begun  in  1848  had  for  its  motive  a  deep-seated  convic- 
tion that  the  interests  of  democracy  demanded  full 
representation,  at  the  polls  and  in  legislation,  of  all 
important  elements  of  the  social  group.  It  was  con- 
tended that  women  have  rights  and  interests  to  be 
maintained  only  by  having  a  voice  in  the  enactment 
of  laws  and  in  the  method  of  their  enforcement. 
That  this  contention  was  well  founded  has  become  in- 
creasingly evident  with  the  progress  of  national  events. 

After  a  long  struggle  twelve  states  have  granted  full 
suffrage  to  women.  These  states  are  Arizona,  Califor- 
nia, Colorado,  Idaho,  Kansas,  Montana,  Nevada,  New 
York,  Oregon,  Utah,  Washington,  Wyoming.  Two 
states,  Texas  and  Arkansas,  grant  primary  suffrage. 
In  Michigan  and  Rhode  Island  women  may  vote  for 
President.  Three  states,  Illinois,  Nebraska  and  North 
Dakota,  have  given  women  both  presidential  and  mu- 
nicipal suffrage.  Municipal  suffrage  is  in  force  in 
Vermont,  while  Ohio  and  Florida  give  municipal  suf- 
frage in  charter  cities.  Fourteen  states.  New  Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Dela- 

43 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ware,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  South  Dakota, 
Kentucky,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Oklahoma  and  New 
Mexico,  permit  women  to  vote  at  school,  bond  or  tax 
elections.  This  leaves  twelve  states,  if  we  count  In- 
diana which  is  still  in  doubt,  in  which  women  have  no 
vote.  Besides  there  are  various  local  problems  which 
arise  in  these  state  campaigns  which  cause  opposition 
to  the  movement  on  the  part  of  various  selfish  inter- 
ests which  fear  the  votes  of  women.  As  a  result  the 
really  vital  principles  involved  are  frequently  lost  sight 
of  by  legislatures. 

On  the  question  of  amendment  to  the  national  con- 
stitution, while  there  are  various  minor  and  more  or 
less  selfish  motives  for  opposition  to  woman's  suf- 
frage, the  principal  division  of  sentiment  is  on  a  mat- 
ter of  interpretation  of  the  constitution.  One  group 
go  back  for  their  interpretation  to  the  original  grounds 
on  which  suffrage  was  left  to  the  individual  states. 
They  maintain  that  to  deprive  states  of  such  regula- 
tion of  the  suffrage  would  endanger  important  local 
interests,  and  that  the  Federal  Government  is  not  com- 
petent to  decide  justly  all  the  particular  issues  which 
such  wide  variation  of  interests  and  conditions  would 
represent.  In  other  words  they  argue  that  this  is  a 
matter  for  local  governments  to  look  after.  One 
writer  even  suggests  that  the  inherent  rights  reserved 

44 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

to  the  states  would  be  violated  directly  by  such  an 
act.2 

On  the  other  hand,  the  suffragists  are  convinced 
that  they  have  established  the  fact  that  no  constitu- 
tional provisions  would  be  violated;  that  votes  for 
women  are  entirely  proper  under  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution when  interpreted  in  the  ligtit  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence.  In  this  view  they  are  sup- 
ported by  many  of  our  best  statesmen.  The  suffrage 
question  has  long  been  made  an  issue  in  both  state 
and  national  politics.  It  took  on  a  new  interest,  how- 
ever, in  the  presidential  election  of  1916,  owing  to 
the  rapid  growth  in  the  woman  vote  for  electors,  and 
also  because  the  question  of  amendment  to  the  Federal 
Constitution  was  again  prominent. 

The  editor  of  the  Outlook  in  an  editorial  published 
in  February,  1910,  said:  "The  Outlook  is  opposed  to 
woman's  suffrage  primarily  because  it  is  an  advocate 
of  woman's  rights,  and  believes  in  her  right  to  be 
exempt  from  the  responsibility  of  participating  in  the 
burdens  and  duties  of  government,  and  that  she  may 
be  free  in  the  future,  as  she  has  been  in  the  past,  for 
a  much  more  important  service  to  the  community." 
Here  is  a  slightly  different  view.  It  does  not  seem  clear 

'  Henry  St.  George  Tucker  in  "Woman's  Suffrage  by  Constitu- 
tional Amendment,"  Chapter  II.  Yale  University  Press,  New 
Haven,  1916. 

45 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

that  the  obligations  involved  in  voting  should,  how- 
ever, seriously  hamper  anyone  in  performing  any 
other  important  service.  This  could  only  be  in  case 
of  those  who  should  wish  to  accept  official  responsi- 
bilities. Certainly  the  intelligence  required  in  order 
truly  to  meet  the  responsibilities  of  an  elector  would 
not  come  amiss  under  any  condition  in  a  democracy. 

In  quite  a  different  spirit  writes  the  editor  of  The 
Independent^  when  he  says :  "It  would  be  no  preroga- 
tive of  a  state,  no  matter  how  'sovereign,*  to  deter- 
mine whether  democracy  in  its  borders  should  be  par- 
tial or  complete.'*  As  a  nation  we  are  a  democracy 
and  as  a  democracy  we  have  ever  had  as  our  ideal 
equality  of  individuals  before  the  law.  In  19 lo  there 
were  in  the  United  States  44,639,989  females.  Of 
these  there  were  12,294,466  fifteen  years  of  age  or 
over  who  were  single,  widowed  or  divorced.  If  from 
this  number  we  were  to  deduct  the  number  under  age  it 
will  readily  be  seen  that  a  very  considerable  number 
of  the  women  of  our  country  would  have  no  repre- 
sentation  whatever  in  making  and  administering  the 
laws  and  levying  taxes. 

Does  it  not  appear,  then,  that  the  vast  changes  which 
have  taken  place  since  first  the  thirteen  colonies  Were 
erected  into  states  call  for  different  methods  of  dealing 
with  the  question  of  citizenship?     Are  not  the  very 

'  The  Independent,  May,  1916,  p.  199. 

46 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

conditions  which  we  see  about  us  today  of  themselves 
sufficient  evidence  that  we  need  to  put  more  emphasis 
on  the  idea  that  we  are  citizens  of  a  nation  and  not 
of  states  f 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  some  women  in  their  zeal 
have  resorted  to  wrong  methods  in  their  campaigning. 
There  would  seem  to  be  no  call,  in  a  democracy,  for  a 
militant  campaign  such  as  was  made  in  England  just 
previous  to  the  present  war,  and  more  recently  against 
the  President  at  Washington.  Public  sentiment,  that 
all-powerful  force  in  democracies,  is  not  to  be  created 
by  resorting  to  such  campaign  methods.  If  suffrage 
for  women  through  constitutional  amendment  is  to 
win  it  must  be  by  persistent  agitation  which  appeals 
to  the  best  there  is  in  humanity.  Certainly  women 
will  gain  little  for  their  cause  by  taking  advantage  of 
man's  regard  for  their  sex  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
almost  traitorously  traduce  the  President  of  the  United 
States  at  such  a  time  as  this.  Had  such  banners  as 
were  recently  used  before  the  White  House  in  Wash- 
ington been  used  thus  by  men  it  would  have  gone  hard 
with  them. 

Most  important  in  the  history  of  the  woman  suf- 
frage movement  was  the  organization  of  the  National 
Woman's  Party.  The  first  national  convention  of  this 
party  met  in  New  York,  October,  1909,  with  Alice 
Paul  as  President.     There  were  in  attendance  804 

47 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

delegates.  The  purpose  of  such  an  organization  was 
to  secure  greater  solidarity  in  a  political  way  and  to 
make  possible  thus  a  stronger  influence  upon  constitu- 
encies in  the  various  political  districts.  Such  an  or- 
ganization also  makes  possible  the  concentration  of 
forces  in  any  local  campaign.  This  organization  has 
taken  an  important  part  in  the  various  state  move- 
ments since  its  formation.  It  has  now  also  entered 
actively  into  national  politics  as  was  evidenced  by  the 
woman  movement  in  connection  with  the  last  presi- 
dential campaign. 

Thus  the  contest  for  constitutional  right  to  the  bal- 
lot, lost  in  the  courts  of  1875,  has  been  transferred, 
after  a  long  struggle,  to  the  political  arena.  The 
intervening  time,  as  has  already  been  noted,  brought 
to  the  cause  notable  victories  in  many  of  the  states. 
But  now  the  tide  sets  strongly  towards  the  national 
issue.  Briefly  stated  the  history  and  present  status 
of  this  movement  is  as  follows: 

The  Federal  Suffrage  amendment  was  first  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States  Senate  January  10,  1878. 

It  was  voted  on  in  the  Senate  January  25,  1887, 
yeas,  16;  nays,  34. 

It  was  again  brought  to  vote  March  19,  191 4,  yeas, 
35 ;  wa3;.y,  34. 

It  was  reported  from  committee,  every  member  ap- 

48 


WOMAN'S  SUFFRAGE  MOVEMENT 

proving,  September  13,  191 7.  It  is  now  on  the  calen- 
dar with  the  date  for  a  vote  fixed  for  June  27,  191 8. 

The  same  measure  was  voted  upon  in  the  House 
January  12,  191 5,  yeas,  ly^;  nays,  204.  On  January 
ID,  19 1 8,  another  vote  was  taken  in  the  House  result- 
ing in  victory  for  the  women  with  the  yeas,  214;  nays, 
136. 

The  women  are  more  firmly  than  ever  convinced 
that  the  question  is  one  of  natural  rights  as  citizens  of 
a  democracy  rather  than  a  privilege  to  be  granted  by 
some  higher  power.  To  concede  that  suffrage  is  a 
privilege  to  be  granted  in  a  democracy  is  to  assume 
that  there  is  a  power  above  that  of  the  people  with 
authority  to  say  who  may  or  may  not  be  the  people 
where  the  electorate  is  concerned.  When  the  states 
ratified  the  Federal  Constitution  no  one  thought  of 
raising  a  question  here  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
Colonies  had  become  accustomed  to  various  limita- 
tions upon  suffrage  as  an  inheritance  from  the  English 
law.  Now  as  we  are  able  to  see  more  clearly  the  real 
and  full  meaning  of  democracy  and  of  representative 
government  it  seems  evident  that  to  give  to  states  the 
right  to  limit  representation  is  a  contradiction  of  the 
most  fundamental  principle  of  the  kind  of  government 
we  are  supposed  to  have.  In  other  words,  to  assume 
the  righteousness  of  the  plea  that  the  franchise  is  a 
privilege  to  be  granted  to  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 

49 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Is  to  assume  the  existence  of  a  central  element  of  au- 
tocracy in  our  form  of  government. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Discuss  fully  the  arguments  against  suffrage  in  the  light 
of  existing  conditions.     (See  pp.  40-41.) 

Discuss  the  question  of  the  constitutional  right  of  with- 
holding the  ballot  from  women  who  hold  property 
in  their  own  right  and  pay  taxes. 

Should  the  poor  working  woman,  although  possessed  of 
no  property  on  which  to  pay  direct  taxes,  be  de- 
prived of  the  ballot  when  she  pays  indirect  taxes  on 
all  she  eats  and  wears? 

Study  the  life  and  work  of  Susan  B.  Anthony. 

Is  the  right  to  regulate  suffrage  in  this  country  safer 
and  better  as  vested  in  the  states  rather  than  in  the 
nation  ? 

References 

Cutler,  H.  G.  "Why  do  Women  Want  the  Ballot?" 
Forum,  53:711-27. 

Hecker,  Eugene  A.  *  A  Short  History  of  Woman's  Rights 
from  the  Days  of  Augustus  to  the  Present  Time." 
New  York,  Putnams,  191 4. 

Kelley,  Florence.  "Some  Ethical  Gains  Through  Legisla- 
tion."    Pp.  172-206.     New  York,  Macmillans,  1905. 

Scheirmacher,  Kathe.  "The  Modem  Woman's  Rights 
Movement."    New  York,  Macmillans,  1912. 

Tucker,  Henry  St.  George.  "Woman's  Suffrage  by  Con- 
stitutional Amendment."     Yale  Lectures,  19 16. 

50 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   AMERICAN    WOMAN    IN    POLITICS 

The  position  of  woman  as  a  voter  is  now  an  es- 
tablished fact.  It  is  not  yet  universal,  however,  and 
there  are  varying  types  of  suffrage  in  the  different 
states  where  laws  have  been  enacted  or  constitutions 
amended.  This  is  a  natural  result  from  the  practice 
of  leaving  the  regulation  of  suffrage  to  the  different 
states.  Such  a  practice  does  not  make  for  equality  of 
rights  in  the  nation.  Judged  in  the  light  of  present 
conditions  it  would  seem  as  though  citizenship,  in 
all  its  fundamental  features  at  least,  should  be  defined 
by  the  Federal  Government.  One  of  the  outstanding 
facts,  as  a  result  of  the  world-war  into  which  we  have 
been  forced  by  circumstances  beyond  our  control,  is 
the  necessity  of  making  the  question  of  citizenship  a 
matter  of  serious  national  concern  rather  than  leaving 
it  where  it  is  subject  to  control  by  influences  which 
may  be  inimical  to  the  principles  of  democracy  as  we 
in  America  are  accustomed  to  interpret  it. 

We  need  a  new  and  clearer  definition  of  the  phrase 
- — the  right  to  "life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happi- 

51 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ness;"  and  we  need  to  teach  this  meaning  so  thoroughly 
to  every  child  in  the  schools  that  it  may  not  be  effaced. 
What  kind  of  life  do  we  mean?  Surely  not  a  mere 
existence  like  beasts  of  the  field.  The  life  of  man  is 
measured  in  different  terms.  He  is  endowed  with 
mental  powers;  with  ideals;  a  constructive  imagina- 
tion; an  aesthetic  judgment;  an  ethical  sense  that  en- 
ables him  to  grasp  truth,  to  know  the  right,  to  love 
justice,  and  to  be  merciful  and  kind. 

What  is  liberty?  Often  licentious  men  are  heard 
to  plead  personal  liberty  in  defense  of  their  acts;  to 
boast  of  their  right  to  follow,  unrestrained,  their  de- 
grading appetites  and  lusts.  How  can  others  live  in 
freedom  and  happiness  if  this  is  the  meaning  of  lib- 
erty? No;  the  liberty  that  makes  nations  free  is  the 
liberty  of  the  individual  to  so  live  and  develop  in  all 
his  powers  as  to  make  for  the  freedom  and  happiness 
of  the  entire  social  group.  Any  other  kind  of  liberty 
would  soon  degenerate  into  forms  of  slavery  most  ab- 
ject and  degrading.  The  truth  of  this  is  amply  illus- 
trated by  the  lives  of  thousands  of  people  in  our  cities. 
The  existence  of  every  slum  district  is  direct  and 
awful  proof  that  some  persons  have  turned  their  liberty 
into  licentiousness.  They  have  become  "alien  enemies" 
in  a  democracy. 

How  are  all  people  to  realize  their  right  to  the  pur- 
suit of  happiness?    By  self-indulgence,  whether  it  be 

52 


THE  AMERICAN  WOMAN  IN  POLITICS 

in  drink,  or  sexual  vice,  or  gambling,  or  money  get- 
ting? How,  then,  can  all  have  this  right?  Certainly 
not  at  all  if  some  seek  to  pursue  happiness  at  the  cost 
of  happiness,  liberty,  perhaps  life  itself,  to  others; 
for  the  right  belongs  to  all  as  the  free  gift  of  God.  It 
is  not  to  be  won  by  might  or  by  power  or  to  be 
bought  with  any  man's  gold. 

And  now  what  has  all  this  to  do  with  votes  for 
women?  Simply  this:  The  ballot  gives  her  the  right 
to  exert  her  most  effective  influence  in.  preserving  hu- 
man life  by  aiding  in  disease  prevention,  and  social 
hygiene,  and  the  proper  nourishing  and  care  of  chil- 
dren. It  enables  her  to  vote  with  all  good  men  against 
all  the  fearful  forms  of  licentiousness  that  infest  so- 
ciety and  restrict  the  liberty  of  thousands  or  rob  them 
altogether  of  its  blessings.  It  frees  her  sex  from  the 
final  obstacle  in  aiding  those  progressive  movements 
in  education,  in  legislation,  and  in  law-enforcement 
which  make  for  the  future  and  permanent  happiness  of 
all  mankind. 

What  is  the  use  of  our  talking  about  "free  govern- 
ment" and  the  "blessings  of  liberty"  while  we  withhold 
from  one  of  the  strongest  social  forces  that  can  aid  in 
perfecting  and  maintaining  such  conditions  the  most 
effective  instrument  that  can  be  wielded  in  a  represen- 
tative government?  Twelve  states  have  already  con- 
ceded the  ballot  to  women,  while  many  others,  in  fact 

53 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

nearly  all  states  in  which  suffrage  is  not  granted,  have 
conceded  enough  to  women  to  indicate  a  recognition 
of  the  value  of  their  cooperation  as  full  citizens.  The 
twelve  states  previously  named  are  here  given  with 
the  dates  of  their  adoption  of  woman  suffrage: 

IWyoming    1869  lArizona  1912 

Colorado   1893  Kansas 1912 

Idaho 1896  Oregon    1912 

Utah    — 1896  Nevada   1914 

Washington    1910  Montana 1914 

California  191 1  New  York. 1917 

These  states  now  have  full  active  suffrage,  including 
school,  municipal,  state  and  national.  They  also  per- 
mit passive  suffrage,  or  eligibility  to  public  office. 
Illinois,  in  19 13,  granted  the  vote  to  women  for  all 
offices  created  by  statute.  This  includes  presidential 
suffrage,  and  limited  municipal,  township,  drainage 
and  primary  suffrage.  To  grant  full  suffrage  in  this 
state  requires  amendments  to  the  constitution.  Henry 
St.  George  Tucker  attributes  this  failure  on  the  part 
of  Illinois  to  grant  full  suffrage  as  proof  of  opposition 
to  full  suffrage  by  the  state.  He  evidently  overlooked 
the  constitutional  restriction. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  the  way  of  woman 
suffrage  in  the  states  appears  in  the  constitutional  lim- 
itation of  the  elective  franchise  to  males.     This  dif- 

54 


THE  AMERICAN  WOMAN  IN  POLITICS 

ficulty  will  become  more  apparent  still  by  scanning  the 
following  list  of  states  and  procedures  required  for 
amending  their  constitutions.  Only  those  states  are 
included  which  have  not  enacted  full  suffrage  laws : 


Requires  majority 

Must    have    ma- 

Must pass  one 

Must  pass  two 

on  amendment 

jority  of  all  votes 

Legislature 

Legislatures 

only  when  submit- 

cast at  the  elec- 

ted to  the  voters 

tion 

Alabama 

Alabama 

Arkansas 

Arkansas' 

Connecticut 

Connecticut 

Delaware* 

Delaware 

Florida! 

Florida 

Geor^a* 
Illinois 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maine 

Maryland 

Maryland 

Massachusetts^ 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri* 

Missouns 

Nebraska 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire* 

New  Jersey* 

New  Jersey 

North  Carolina 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oklahoma' 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania* 

Rhode  Island 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina* 

South  Carolina* 

South  Dakota 

South  Dakota* 

Tennessee 

Tennessee* 

Texas 

Texas 

Vermont 

Vermont" 

Virginia 

Virginia* 

West  Vii^inia 

West  Virginia 

V/isconsin 

Wisconsin 

1  Does  not  require  submission  to  voters. 

•  Legislative  session  annually. 

»  May  be  submitted  by  Legislature  or  by  petition. 

*  Constitutional  convention  possible  any  time. 

'  Constitution  may  be  amended  only  once  in  lo  years. 
«  Constitution  may  be  amended  only  once  in  7  years. 


Three  states,  Delaware,  Iowa  and  Michigan,  have 
school  suffrage,  active  and  passive,  and  also  some  form 
of  taxpaying  suffrage  for  womea    Eleven  states  have 

55 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

some  form  of  school  suffrage  only.    These  states  with 
dates  of  action  are  as  follows: 

Minnesota 1875      South  Dakota 1887 

New  Hampshire   1878     Connecticut 1893 

Massachusetts    1879     Wisconsin 1900 

Mississippi    i88c     Oklahoma 1907 

New  Jersey 1887     Kentucky    1912 

New  Mexico 1912 

Louisiana  has  only  tax-paying  suffrage  at  present. 

It  thus  appears  that  at  least  twenty-seven  states 
now  have  some  form  of  school  suffrage,  thus  defi- 
nitely recognizing  woman's  interest  in  education.  In 
many  of  these,  however,  when  it  comes  to  votes  for 
financing  education,  especially  bonding  for  necessary 
buildings,  women  are  not  permitted  to  vote.  And  why 
should  they  not  be  ?  Are  not  their  votes  as  likely  to  be 
intelligent  as  those  of  the  men?  There  are  fewer 
illiterate  women  than  men  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  preponderance  of  girls  attending  high  schools^ 
would  seem  to  indicate  a  higher  average  of  intelli- 
gence among  the  masses  of  women  than  among  men. 

There  are  numerous  other  interests  of  society  which 
women  share  at  least  equally  with  man.  This  is  say- 
ing nothing  of  their  peculiar  personal  rights  as  affected 
by  laws  relating  to  industries  and  professional  call- 

*  805,319  girls  and  670,759  boys  enrolled  in  all  high  schools  of 
U.  S.  in  1915. 

56 


THE  AMERICAN  WOMAN  IN  POLITICS 

ings,  temperance  and  health,  marriage  and  divorce, 
the  age  of  consent,  and  various  criminal  laws  affect- 
ing women  directly  or  indirectly.  To  give  to  woman 
the  right  to  vote  is  simply  to  put  her  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing of  free  action  with  man  in  all  these  seriously  fun- 
damental social  problems.  To  quote  from  Jane 
Addams  :^ 

If  woman  would  fulfill  her  traditional  responsibility  to 
her  own  children ;  if  she  would  educate  and  protect  from 
danger  factory  children  who  must  find  their  recreation 
on  the  street;  if  she  would  bring  the  cultural  forces  to 
bear  upon  our  materialistic  civilization ;  and  if  she  would 
do  it  all  with  the  dignity  and  directness  fitting  one  who 
carries  on  her  immemorial  duties,  then  she  must  bfing 
herself  to  the  use  of  the  ballot — that  latest  implement  of 
self-government.  May  we  not  say  that  American  women 
need  this  implement  in  order  to  preserve  the  home  ? 

Outside  of  the  states  in  which  full  suffrage  is  now 
extended  it  is  difficult  to  define  the  situation  with  re- 
gard to  municipal  suffrage.  In  Iowa  women  may 
vote  on  propositions  to  issue  bonds  or  to  increase  tax. 
In  Michigan  women  who  are  taxpayers  may  vote  on 
local  taxation  and  the  granting  of  franchises.  In  Illi- 
nois women  have  been  Masters  in  Chancery  by  ap- 
pointment and  Justices  of  the  Peace  by  the  votes  of 
men  only. 

'Quoted  from  University  of  Oklahoma  Bulletin  on  Woman's 
Suffrage. 

57 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

In  a  number  of  states  where  no  vote  is  permitted 
women  may  hold  offices  such  as  notary  public,  mem- 
bership on  charitable  boards  and  boards  of  visitation 
for  state  institutions,  library  boards,  and  various 
other  appointive  offices,  as  police  matrons,  probation- 
ary officers,  etc.  In  all  these  cases  the  principle  of" 
woman's  participation  in  government  is  recognized 
even  though  the  elective  franchise  is  withheld. 

And  what  is  the  result  of  such  political  activity  as 
the  woman  citizen  of  the  United  States  is  permitted  to 
share  with  the  men?  In  all  suffrage  states  women  . 
serve  as  jurors.  Much  attention  is  given  by  them  to 
education  and  the  legislation  necessary  and  favorable 
to  its  advancement.  In  the  states  where  woman  suf- 
frage has  been  longest  in  operation  the  vast  majority 
of  the  people  not  only  favor  it  but  would,  under  no 
consideration,  be  willing  to  relinquish  it.  Generally 
speaking  the  elections  in  woman  suffrage  states  are 
more  quiet  and  respectable.  Candidates  with  immoral 
records  are  eliminated.  Intemperance  and  immoral- 
ity are  more  energetically  combated.  Public  finances 
are  more  economically  administered.  The  wages  and 
salaries  of  women  are  raised. 

As  to  the  unfavorable  results  which  many  have 
argued  would  certainly  come  with  woman's  partici- 
pation in  political  affairs  perhaps  the  best  answer  to 

58 


THE  AMERICAN  V/OMAN  IN  POLITICS 

be  given  here  is  to  be  found  in  the  following  words 
quoted  from  Carrie  Chapman  Catt  :^ 

They  [women]  do  not  neglect  their  husbands,  or  chil- 
dren, or  homes  for  politics.  They  do  not  become  un- 
sexed  and  poor  imitations  of  men.  There  is  no  in- 
crease of  divorces,  no  falling  off  in  the  number  of  mar- 
riages or  number  of  births.  No  harm  in  any  way  has 
come  to  women,  to  men,  to  children,  or  to  the  State, 
while  on  the  contrary,  much  positive  good  has  been  ac- 
complished. 

When  we  come  to  the  consideration  of  woman's 
vote  nationally  we  find  this  at  its  most  interesting 
stage,  as  thus  far  manifested,  in  the  presidential  cam- 
paign of  191 6.  Since  the  addition  of  Montana  and 
Nevada  to  the  suffrage  column  in  19 14  and  New  York 
in  19 1 7,  the  states  now  granting  full  suffrage,  to- 
gether with  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Nebraska, 
North  Dakota,  Rhode  Island  and  Texas  which  give 
presidential  suffrage,  represent  198  out  of  the  532 
electoral  votes  or  213  if  we  were  to  count  Indiana. 
With  Indiana  counted  there  would  now  be  11,121,097 
women  over  2 1  in  the  states  having  complete  or  presi- 
dential suffrage.  Women  may  now  vote  for  28  U. 
S.  Senators  and  108  Congressmen.  This  gives  a  na- 
tional significance  of  great  weight  to  the  votes  of 
women,  and  with  the  national  organization  of  the 

'From  The  Forum,  June,  1910.    Quoted  from  the  Oklahoma 
Bulletin  on  Woman's  Suffrage. 

59 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Woman's  Party  to  direct  the  campaigns,  there  is  pre- 
sented a  new  force  in  national  poHtics  which  must  be 
reckoned  with  by  the  leading  political  parties.  A  new 
emphasis  is  added  to  this  statement  by  the  recent  ac- 
tion in  the  State  of  New  York. 

"That  it  has  created  a  political  situation  for  the 
leaders  of  both  parties,"  writes  C.  A.  Beard  in  the 
New  RepuJblic,  "is  a  fact  of  recognized  significance.'* 
A  feature  of  this  new  political  situation  of  more  than 
ordinary  interest  is  the  very  skillful  manner  in  which 
the  leaders  of  the  Woman's  Party  conducted  their  cam- 
paign. If  the  average  male  politician  has  any  idea  that 
this  movement  is  weak  or  will  fall  flat  for  lack  of  di- 
recting ability,  clear  headed  planning  and  real  politi- 
cal insight,  he  is  doomed  to  a  rude  awakening. 

Graham  Taylor  commenting  on  the  woman's  cam- 
paign in  the  Chicago  city  election  says  of  it  that  "The 
program  which  the  women  submit  to  the  citizens  is 
very  directly  aimed  at  maintaining  and  advancing 
Chicago's  purpose  to  be  a  council-governed  city,  with 
officials  appointed  only  for  merit  under  the  civil  serv- 
ice law."  He  goes  on  to  show  how,  in  the  campaign, 
the  women  avoided  personalities  and  dealt  with  the 
principles  involved.  "They  thereby  best  demonstrated 
their  virile  grasp  of  the  civic  issues  at  stake  and  their 
right  to  be  credited  by  an  influential  newspaper  with 
having  given  'an  impressive  demonstration  of  the  new 

60 


THE  AMERICAN  WOMAN  IN  POLITICS 

force  in  Chicago  politics/  "  With  an  organization 
that  can  conduct  such  a  campaign  in  a  great  city  like 
Chicago  with  all  its  conflicting  forces  operative  in  the 
realm  of  politics  there  are  undoubtedly  interesting 
things  to  be  accomplished  in  the  future. 

The  woman  in  politics  thus  promises  to  become  an 
added  force  towards  the  correction  of  some  of  the 
atrocities  that  have  found  their  way  into  our  politi- 
cal affairs  in  many  forms  and  places.  The  woman'^ 
party  has  arrived  on  the  scene  at  the  psychological 
time.  For,  as  Beard  puts  it,  "The  inexorable  social 
forces  of  the  age  are  marshaled  on  the  side  of  woman 
suffrage.  The  integration  of  America  demands  that 
this  great  national  force  be  drawn  into  the  main  cur- 
rent of  our  active  public  life." 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Study  the  varied  conceptions  of  liberty  to  be  found  in 
the  minds  of  the  people  of  a  given  community  and 
seek  to  determine  what  the  dominant  ideas  are. 

Discuss  the  question  of  the  probable  effect  of  woman's 
voting  on  the  home  and  family  life  of  the  nation. 

Make  an  investigation  of  the  educational  value  to  women 
of  the  obligation  which  the  right  to  vote  will  bring 
to  them. 

Investigate  the  meaning  of  the  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  southern  states  to  woman  suffrage.  Is  there 
real  serious  ground  for  such  opposition? 

6i 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

References 

See  references  to  Chapter  III. 

Beard,  C.  A.     "The  Woman's  Party."     New  Republic, 

7:329-31. 
"The  New  Force  in  Chicago  Politics."    Graham  Taylor, 

Survey,  36:34. 
"The  Western  Woman's  Drive  on  Democracy."    Literary 

Digest,  53-444-5.    Also  see  pp.  1315-16. 
"Women  Voters."    Outlook,  113:641-2. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  study  of  the  legal  status  of  women,  varying,  as 
it  does,  under  the  widely  different  statutes  of  the 
states  concerning  marriage,  divorce  and  property 
rights,  presents  a  complex  problem  for  treatment  in  a 
single  chapter.  No  layman  as  to  law  could  avoid 
wondering  why  it  should  be  essential  to  life,  liberty 
or  happiness  that  there  should  be  such  diversity  in 
matters  so  fundamental  to  the  individual  lives  of  a 
common  country.  With  all  our  intermingling,  our 
movements  from  state  to  state,  with  the  frequent 
change  of  domicile  on  the  part  of  so  many  of  our  citi- 
zens, what  a  world  of  confusion,  of  useless  litiga- 
tion, of  questionable  advantage  with  regard  to  certain 
obligations,  might  be  avoided  by  the  establishment  of 
common  laws,  in  such  matters,  for  all  the  states.  It 
is  doubtless  true  that  some  minor  differences  might 
always  remain  for  local  state  adjustment ;  but  the  big, 
fundamental  facts  might  readily  be  expressed  in  legis- 
lation that  would  fit  all  the  states.  Neither  marriage 
nor  divorce  are  matters  to  be  limited  by  state  boun- 

63 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

daries.  The  situation  is  somewhat  different  as  to 
property  rights  in  general;  but  as  to  such  rights  as 
affecting  woman  the  general  statutes  might  be  prac- 
tically uniform. 

In  this  respect  it  would  seem  as  though  there  might 
well  be  built  up,  from  such  statutes  as  most  of  the 
states  share  in  common,  a  new  common  law,  differing 
materially  from  the  Common  Law  of  England  and 
making  provision  for  the  fundamental  facts  enter- 
ing into  the  married  relation,  the  problem  of  divorce, 
and  the  important  aspects  of  property  rights.  It 
would  be  quite  within  the  possibilities  that  women,  by 
their  united  efforts,  as  the  right  of  suffrage  is  granted 
to  them  more  generally,  should  be  able  to  bring  about 
some  important  and  seemingly  needed  unifications  of 
such  laws. 

Let  us  first  consider  some  of  the  important  facts 
concerning  marriage  as  affecting  women.  Among 
these  the  legal  age  for  contracting  marriage  should  be 
included.  On  this  point  the  following  facts  appear: 
For  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Arizona,  Georgia,  Iowa, 
North  Carolina,  Texas  and  West  Virginia  the  legal 
age  is  14  years;  but  the  consent  of  parent  or  guardian 
must  be  given  if  the  female  is  a  minor,  or  under  18 
years  of  age. 

In  California,  Kansas,  Maine,  Minnesota,  New 
Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oregon,  South  Dakota,  Wash- 

64 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

ington  and  Wisconsin  the  legal  age  is  15  years.  Oi 
these  states,  Minnesota  requires  consent  of  parents  or 
guardian  if  under  15  years  of  age;  all  the  other  states 
in  this  group  require  consent  of  parent  or  guardian  for 
all  females  under  18  years  of  age. 

In  the  state  of  Colorado  no  age  limit  is  set  but  the 
contracting  parties  must  have  the  consent  of  par- 
ents or  guardian;  or  in  their  absence,  the  person  of- 
ficiating must  be  the  judge. 

In  the  states  of  Connecticut  and  Delaware,  and  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  no  age  limit  is  mentioned, 
but  all  minors  must  have  the  consent  of  parents  or 
guardian.  Florida  is  the  same  except  that  females 
under  21  must  have  the  consent  of  parents  or  guar- 
dian. 

Idaho  requires  like  consent  if  the  female  is  under  18 
years  of  age.  In  Illinois,  Indiana,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
Nevada,  Ohio  and  Wyoming  the  age  of  consent  is  16 
years,  with  parents'  or  guardian's  consent  for  minors. 
South  Carolina  is  the  same  except  that  parental  con- 
sent is  not  mentioned. 

In  Kentucky  and  Louisiana  the  age  limit  is  12 
years  with  parental  consent  if  under  21  in  Kentucky, 
and  under  18  in  Louisiana.  Maryland  grants  no  li- 
cense where  the  female  is  under  18  years  of  age  with- 
out consent  of  parent  or  guardian  attested  by  two 
witnesses. 

6s 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
New  Jersey,  Oklahoma,  Utah  and  Vermont  require 
the  consent  of  parents  or  guardian  for  all  under  i8 
years  of  age.  New  York  makes  i8  years  the  age  of 
consent  and  marriage  voidable  for  all  under  that  age. 
In  Pennsylvania  persons  under  21  years  of  age  must 
have  consent  of  parent  or  guardian.  Rhode  Island 
makes  no  mention  of  age  but  places  other  safeguards. 
In  New  Hampshire  the  limit  is  13  years. 

Tennessee  requires  written  permission  of  parent 
or  guardian  in  all  cases  under  16  years  of  age.  Vir- 
ginia requires  21  years  or  parental  consent. 

The  common  law  age  of  consent  for  females  is  12 
years,  and  this  still  holds  in  states  where  the  statutes 
have  not  changed  the  age  limit.  Thus  in  Rhode  Island 
the  age  of  consent  would  still  be  12  years,  while  in 
Kentucky  and  Louisiana  the  age  limit  for  marriage 
set  by  statute  is  the  same  as  the  common  law  age  of 
consent. 

A  license  is  required  in  nearly  all  of  the  states,  and 
the  statutes  also  designate  who  is  authorized  to  offi- 
ciate in  solemnizing  marriages.  The  laws  of  this  coun- 
try consider  marriage  as  a  civil  contract.  The  holiness 
of  matrimony  is  a  matter  solely  of  ecclesiastical  law. 
As  a  civil  contract  it  is  good  and  valid  if  the  parties 
to  it  at  time  of  making  were  "willing  to  contract,  able 
to  contract  and  actually  did  contract"  according  to  the 

66 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

requirements  of  the  law  in  the  state  where  the  con- 
tract was  solemnized. 

Most  of  the  states  undertake  to  declare  who  are 
competent  to  marry  and  also  under  what  conditions 
persons  are  not  competent.  In  states  where  two  or 
more  different  races  are  found  in  considerable  num- 
bers special  legal  prohibitions  on  intermarriage  be- 
tween these  races  are  provided,  as  marriage  between 
whites  and  negroes,  or  between  whites  and  Mongoli- 
ans, or  whites  and  Indians. 

The  laws  governing  divorce  are  also  of  great  concern 
to  women.  These  laws  vary  widely  in  some  details, 
although  there  seems  to  be  general  unanimity  among 
states  as  to  the  most  important  phases  of  the  prob-^ 
lem.  Only  one  state,  South  Carolina,  is  without  any 
laws  granting  divorce.  As  to  the  causes  for  which 
divorces  may  be  granted,  while  there  is  some  diversity, 
yet  on  those  which  may  be  considered  most  funda- 
mental there  is  quite  general  agreement  by  a  majority 
of  the  states.  Among  the  more  fundamental  causes 
are  the  following: 

1.  Physical  incompetency  or  impotence,  named  in  38 
states. 

2.  Willful  desertion  or  abandonment,  by  44  states. 

3.  Imprisonment  for  conviction  of  felonious  crime,  by 
42  states. 

4.  Adultery,  by  47  states. 

67 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

5.  Habitual  drunkenness  or  intemperance,  by  37  states. 

6.  Cruelty  or  violent  treatment,  by  42  states. 

7.  Neglect  or  failure  to  provide  necessities  of  life  with- 
out sufficient  cause,  by  25  states. 

Other  causes  less  frequently  mentioned:  i.  Husband 
or  v^ife  by  a  previous  marriage  still  living.  2.  In- 
sanity. 3.  Fraudulent  contract.  In  all  there  are  as 
many  as  twenty-five  or  thirty  causes  when  we  enumer- 
ate those  from  all  the  states. 

The  administration  of  the  law  in  these  various 
cases  differs  under  the  varying  statutes  of  the  states. 
While  in  some  cases  there  are  local  conditions  which 
may  tend  to  intensify  the  necessity  for  variations  in 
the  laws,  yet  it  seems  quite  readily  possible  that,  for 
the  most  part,  a  still  greater  uniformity  of  cause  and 
action  might  be  had,  and  that  greatly  to  the  advan- 
tage of  society  in  general. 

As  another  evidence  of  the  variation  by  states, 
though  not  so  striking,  but  of  very  great  importance, 
is  the  time  of  residence  required  in  a  state  before  a 
bill  can  be  considered.  The  figures  given  refer  to  resi- 
dence required  just  preceding  the  petition  for  a  divorce 
by  a  plaintiff  who  comes  from  another  state  in  which 
the  cause  occurred. 

Four  states  require  only  six  months. 
Thirty-one  states  require  one  year. 
Eight  states  require  two  years. 

68 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

One  state  requires  three  years. 
One  state  requires  five  years. 

The  State  of  Louisiana  makes  no  provision  by  which 
a  citizen  from  another  state  may  obtain  a  divorce. 
Delav^are  will  not  grant  a  decree  to  a  person  whose 
cause  for  petition  occurred  in  another  state  unless  the 
laws  of  the  state  from  which  the  petitioner  came  would 
grant  it  for  the  same  or  like  cause.  Adultery  is  made 
a  crime  or  misdemeanor  in  thirty-eight  states. 

In  the  matter  of  granting  alimony  the  general  statu- 
tory provisions  vary  but  little  among  the  states.  This 
includes  alimony  pending  suits  and  after  settlement, 
and  also  alimony  which  may  be  granted  in  cases  of 
desertion  without  suit  for  divorce.  The  woman  is 
usually  protected  as  to  costs,  pending  the  suit,  espe- 
cially where  it  appears  that  she  is  without  independent 
means. 

In  providing  for  the  care  of  children  pending  suits, 
and  also  subsequently  to  the  granting  of  decrees,  most 
of  the  states  leave  the  adjustment  of  custody,  support, 
and  education  to  the  discretion  of  the  Court. 

Among  the  most  objectionable  conditions  of  laws 
regulating  divorce  in  the  different  states  may  be  men- 
tioned :  ( i)  The  lack  of  uniformity  of  causes,  with  a 
tendency  in  many  states  to  give  too  many.  (2)  The 
failure  in  several  states  to  distinguish  clearly  among 
annulment  of  marriage;  a  divorce  from  the  bonds  of 

69 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

matrimony,  or  a  vinculo  matrimonii;  and  divorce  from 
bed  and  board,  legal  separation,  or  divorce  a  mensa  et 
thoro.  (3)  The  matter  of  residence,  or  the  right  of 
an  individual  to  seek  divorce  in  a  state  foreign  to  the 
one  in  which  the  cause  occurred. 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  remedying  these  condi- 
tions that  the  National  Congress  on  Uniform  Di- 
vorce met  in  Washington  and  Philadelphia  in  1906. 
In  the  resolutions  adopted  and  approved  by  these  two 
meetings  held  the  same  year  it  was  agreed  that  pro- 
cedure should  be  through  state  legislation  rather  than 
national,  since  in  the  latter  case  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment would  be  necessary. 

In  the  recommendations  enumerated  in  these  reso- 
lutions occur  the  following  as  relating  to  the  three  un- 
favorable conditions  above  named : 

I.   AS  TO  CAUSES 

A,  Causes  for  annulment  of  the  marriage  contract. 

1.  Impotency. 

2.  Consanguinity  and  affinity,  properly  limited. 

3.  Existing  marriage. 

4.  Fraud,  force  or  coercion. 

5.  Insanity,  unknown  to  the  other  party. 

B.  Causes  for  Divorce — a  vinculo  matrimonii, 

1.  Adultery. 

2.  Bigamy. 

3.  Conviction  of  crime  in  certain  classes  of  cases. 

4.  Intolerable  cruelty. 

70 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

5.  Willful  desertion  for  two  years. 

6.  Habitual  drunkenness. 

C.    Causes  for  Legal  Separation,  or  divorce  a  mensa, 

1.  Adultery. 

2.  Intolerable  cruelty. 

3.  Willful  desertion  for  two  years. 

4.  Hopeless  insanity  of  husband. 

5.  Habitual  drunkenness. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  Congress  that  the  plaintiff  in 
a  suit  should  have  a  choice  between  B  and  C  where 
causes  were  similar. 

II.      AS  TO  DISTINCT  CLASSIFICATION 

That  given  under  "causes"  indicates  the  action  taken. 
Various  explanatory  clauses  were  given  following  this 
classification. 

III.       AS  TO  THE  MATTER  OF  RESIDENCE  AND 
JURISDICTION 

It  was  the  expressed  thought  and  wish  of  the  Con- 
gress (i)  That  for  courts  given  cognizance  of  suits 
v^here  the  plaintiffs  or  defendants  were  domiciled  in 
foreign  jurisdictions  at  the  time  the  causes  of  com- 
plaint arose  it  should  be  insisted  that  relief  be  not 
given  unless  the  causes  of  divorce  were  included 
among  those  recognized  in  such  foreign  domiciles. 
(2)  Where  jurisdiction  for  absolute  divorce  depends 
upon  the  residence  of  either  plaintiff  or  defendant, 

71 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

not  less  than  two  years'  residence  should  be  required 
in  either  case,  on  account  of  change  of  state  domi- 
cile since  the  cause  of  divorce  arose. ^ 

One  of  the  impelling  causes  of  this  effort  made  by 
the  Congress  on  Uniform  Divorce  was  undoubtedly 
the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  divorce  suits  and 
decrees  in  the  United  States.  The  increase  from  I9CX> 
to  1906  was  as  follows: 

Increase  over 

Year                                    Total  number  preceding  year 

1900  55,751 

1901  60,984  5,233 

1902 61,480  496 

1903 64,925  3,445 

1904  66,199  1,274 

1905   67,976  1,777 

1906 72,062  4,086 

A  further  comparison  of  these  figures  with  the  in- 
crease in  population,  as  shown  by  James  P.  Lichten- 
berger  in  his  study  of  Divorce,  will  indicate  a  more 
rapid  increase  in  divorces  than  in  population.  From 
this  it  is  rightly  concluded  that  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  divorces  is  an  absolute  increase  rather 
than  increase  at  the  same  ratio  as  population." 

While  there  was  doubtless  need  of  some  such  ac- 

^See  Address  and  Resolutions  and  Uniform  Law  Relating  to 
Marriage  and  Divorce  by  the  National  Congress  on  Divorce 
Laws,  1906. 

72 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

tion  as  that  taken  by  the  National  Uniform  Divorce 
Congress,  yet  it  is  not  necessarily  to  be  inferred  that 
the  cause  of  the  increase  was  to  be  found  in  the  char- 
acter of  existing  laws.  The  more  complete  study  of 
causation  by  Lichtenberger  seems  to  point  clearly  to 
other  causes  which  would  operate  independently  of 
any  changes  in  the  statutes.  Among  the  causes  which 
he  enumerates  are  the  following:  Economic  develop- 
ment, resulting  in  economic  pressure  upon  the  home 
and  the  passing  of  the  economic  function  of  the  home ; 
also  bringing  about  the  economic  emancipation  of 
women.  Social  progress  is  the  second  cause  enume- 
rated. This  has  produced  the  liberal  spirit  character- 
istic of  America,  has  popularized  law,  and  improved 
the  education  and  general  social  outlook  of  women. 

In  the  ethical  and  religious  readjustments  follow- 
ing upon  the  discoveries  of  science  and  the  broader 
application  of  the  scientific  method  is  seen  a  third 
cause.  The  old  dogmatic  stage  has  given  place  to  ra- 
tionalism in  religion  and  ethics,  and  the  consciousness 
of  this  change  has  tended  to  emphasize  the  intolerable- 
ness  of  certain  conditions  in  the  married  relation  and 
to  demand  higher  ideals  of  domestic  happiness. 

From  this  standpoint  the  inference  is  that  increase 
in  the  number  of  divorces  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  marriages  between  persons  not  properly  mated 
or  worse  conditions  that  have  developed  after  mar- 

73 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

riage  have  been  the  cause.  The  conditions,  on  a  fair 
basis  of  comparison,  might  be  found  to  be  even  more 
favorable  than  in  the  past.  The  real  difference  is  in 
the  awakening  to  consciousness  of  these  conditions 
and  an  inclination,  with  growing  independence  and 
education,  to  seek  relief  from  exceedingly  intolerable 
situations. 

In  connection  with  this  movement  there  should  be 
noted  the  influence  of  ecclesiastical  law.  This  in- 
fluence has  ever  been  strongly  conservative  as  opposed 
to  any  increased  freedom  in  the  granting  of  divorces. 
The  Catholic  Church  has  maintained  its  stand  as  op- 
posed to  divorce  from  any  except  the  major  cause  of 
adultery.  The  tendency  of  Protestantism  has  been 
towards  the  granting  of  divorce  for  fewer  causes. 

On  the  other  hand  those  who  see  in  divorce  increase 
an  index  of  social  evolution  and  higher  ideals  of  the 
married  state  are  not  alarmed  by  such  increase.  They 
profess  faith  in  the  belief  that  as  higher  and  more 
uniformly  applied  ethical  standards  of  marriage  are 
attained  divorce  will  become  less  and  less  frequent  and 
for  fewer  causes ;  for  many  of  the  causes  now  pleaded 
will  then  have  ceased  to  exist. 

On  this  ground  of  social  change  and  wider  free- 
dom as  cause  for  the  increase  in  divorces  Felix  Adler  ^ 

'  "Marriage  and  Divorce,"  Felix  Adler,  New  York,  McClure, 
Phillips  &  Co.,  1905. 

74 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

is  inclined  to  take  a  much  less  favorable  view  than 
that  expressed  by  Lichtenberger  as  a  result  of  his 
study.  Adler  holds  that  "the  social  end  of  marriage 
is  to  perpetuate  the  physical  and  spiritual  existence 
of  the  human  race,  and  to  enhance  and  improve  it.'* 
He  fears  that  there  is  a  tendency,  on  account  of  the 
wide  permeation  of  ideas  of  freedom,  to  forget  the 
great  social  ends  of  marriage  and  of  family  life;  that 
the  entrance  of  this  ideal  of  freedom  means  a  real 
danger  in  the  rapid  breaking  away  from  all  traditions 
and  distinctions  as  to  intermarriages  out  of  the  social 
group. 

No  doubt  there  is  danger.  Indeed,  we  have  had 
our  extremists  who  would  break  down  the  entire  social 
fabric  now  built  upon  the  family  unit  by  dispensing 
altogether  with  the  family.  But  the  signs  of  the  times 
seem  to  read  differently.  Out  of  all  this  ferment  of 
new  thought,  this  stress  of  economic  change,  this 
broader  grasp  of  the  idea  of  real  democracy,  the  fam- 
ily will  yet  come  forth  intact  as  to  its  central  idea 
and  purpose.  But  it  will  mean  that  marriage  has  come 
to  be  a  real  matter  of  heart  and  purpose  and  desire 
on  the  higher  level  of  a  comprehension  of  its  sacred 
obligations  and  its  significance  to  posterity.  Cer- 
tainly on  no  lower  level  than  this  can  we  hope  for  a 
diminution  of  divorces  and  annulments,  or  of  other 
and  perhaps  cheaper  modes  of  severance  of  the  matri- 

75 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

monial  bond  which  some  even  now  would  seem  to  ad- 
vocate. 

A  third  important  consideration  as  to  the  legal  status 
of  women  is  the  one  that  relates  to  ownership  and 
transfer  of  property.  On  this  matter  the  following 
general  statement  is  significant : 

It  is  a  general  rule  throughout  the  United  States  at 
the  present  time  that  a  married  woman  may  receive,  re- 
ceipt for,  hold,  manage,  dispose  of,  lease,  sell  and  con- 
vey, devise  or  bequeath  her  separate  property,  both  real 
and  personal,  as  if  sole,  without  joining  with  or  receiving 
the  consent  of  the  husband.  In  the  United  States  the  law 
has  reached  that  lofty  elevation  of  ethical  sentiment 
which  enables  it  to  announce  that  justice  knows  no  dis- 
tinction of  sex.  In  this  country,  apart  from  voting  and 
holding  office,  woman  labors  under  no  legal  disabilities 
of  sex.* 

In  the  matter  of  the  guardianship  of  children  the 
disposition  lies  with  the  father  in  most  states.  The 
statutes  provide  for  the  designation  of  guardians  or 
the  manner  of  their  appointment  in  the  will  of  the 
father.  In  relatively  few  cases  does  this  testamentary 
right  go  to  the  mother.  Generally  speaking,  in  all 
other  cases,  guardians  are  provided  for  by  statute  and 
their  appointment  is  usually  by  the  court. 

Most  of  the  states  still  provide  by  statute  for  dower 

"  Bayles,  "Woman  and  the  Law,"  pp.  14  and  142.  Quoted  from 
Lichtenberger's  "Divorce,  A  Study  in  Social  Causation."  New 
York,  1909. 

76 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

in  case  of  death  of  husband  or  wife.  The  proportion 
of  the  estate  included  in  the  dower  varies  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  depending  usually  on  the  contingency 
of  the  presence  or  absence  of  children.  Several  of 
the  states  have  definitely  abolished  dower,  while  in  a 
few  instances  it  rests  on  the  old  English  common  law 
basis.  In  Louisiana,  dowry  is  still  defined  as  **the  ef- 
fects which  the  wife  brings  to  the  husband  to  support 
the  expenses  of  marriage.'' 

Thus  it  appears  that  in  this  country  we  have  ad- 
vanced very  far  from  the  common  law  basis  in  all 
matters  affecting  woman's  legal  rights  with  regard 
to  property,  and  in  so  doing  have  greatly  extended  her 
economic  freedom.  This  very  fact,  however,  would 
seem  to  make  the  withholding  of  political  rights  a  still 
greater  injustice  than  under  previous  conditions. 

The  United  States  still  lags  behind  most  European 
countries  in  the  matter  of  providing  maternity  insur- 
ance for  married  women  who  work  in  the  industries. 
Such  laws  vary  in  form  and  effectiveness  in  the  coun- 
tries where  legal  provision  has  been  made.  The  gen- 
eral purpose  is  to  provide  for  working  women,  at  the 
time  of  maternity,  not  only  time  off  from  service, 
but  also  financial  aid  to  take  the  place  of  the  wage 
that  is  stopped.  Thus  far  we  are  wanting  in  such 
legislation.  For  the  most  part  those  countries  where 
woman  has  secured  the  greatest  political  freedom  are 

77 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

also  most  liberal  in  such  legislation  affecting  bread 
winning  mothers. 

In  the  matter  of  workmen's  compensations  and  em- 
ployer's liability  acts  we  are  in  much  better  shape, 
and  these  laws  also  materially  affect  the  status  of  the 
working  woman. 

Two  or  three  subjects  of  more  recent  legislation  for 
women  are  related  to  woman's  employment  in  the  in- 
dustries. Chief  among  these  are  the  eight-hour  law, 
factory  regulations  as  related  to  health  conditions  and 
morals,  and  the  minimum-wage  problem.  In  many  of 
the  states  there  are  excellent  laws  regulating  factory 
conditions  backed  up  by  adequate  provisions  for  in- 
spection and  enforcement  of  these  laws.  Needless  to 
say,  however,  there  is  much  more  to  be  accomplished 
in  this  direction. 

A  number  of  states  are  on  record  for  laws  limiting 
the  working  day  or  week  for  women,  usually  pro- 
viding for  an  eight-hour  day  or  forty-eight  hour  week. 
As  was  to  be  expected  these  laws  were  vigorously  at- 
tacked in  the  courts  in  several  instances,  and  cases 
have  been  heard  and  decisions  rendered  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  thus  establishing  these  laws  as 
to  their  main  features.  The  usual  objections  raised 
as  to  the  constitutionality  of  these  eight-hour  laws 
have  been :  ( i )  The  question  of  freedom  of  contract ; 
(2)  the  equal  protection  of  the  law.    The  rulings  on 

78 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

these  two  points  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
are  fairly  expressed  by  the  following  brief  quotations 
from  decisions  on  two  California  cases  written  by 
Justice  Hughes:  (i)  "The  liberty  of  contract  guar- 
anteed by  the  constitution  is  freedom  from  arbitrary 
restraint,  not  immunity  from  reasonable  regulation  to 
safeguard  the  public  interests."  To  this  was  added 
that  "Upon  this  point  the  recent  decisions  of  this 
Court  upholding  other  statutes  limiting  the  hours  of 
labor  of  women  must  be  regarded  as  decisive."  (2) 
On  the  second  objection  the  following:  "The  legisla- 
ture is  not  bound,  in  order  to  support  the  constitu- 
tional validity  of  its  regulation,  to  extend  it  to  all  cases 
which  it  might  possibly  reach." 

Thus  the  right  of  state  legislatures  to  enact  laws 
to  regulate  working  hours,  and  that  regardless  of  what 
other  states  may  or  may  not  have  done,  is  clearly 
established.  But  in  the  language  of  the  ruling  it  was 
further  intimated  that  it  might  also  be  possible  for 
legislatures  to  classify  and  discriminate  as  to  the  na- 
ture and  severity  of  the  work  performed.  The  same 
principle  of  differentiating  the  occupations  involved  as 
to  severity  and  as  to  health  has  arisen  in  connection 
with  legislation  seeking  to  establish  a  minimum-wage 
law.  In  this  latter  case,  however,  the  problem  is  a 
somewhat  more  complicated  one. 

79 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

In  an  article  on  "Minimum  Wages  for  Women,"  by 
Professor  Taussig  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Eco- 
nomics for  May,  191 6,  the  writer  undertakes  to  set 
forth  the  real  economic  problems  involved.  Among 
other  things  he  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  "of  all 
the  women  employed  at  least  half  are  between  the  ages 
of  sixteen  and  twenty-five."  He  goes  on  to  show 
that  the  proportion  of  young  girls  is  much  the  largest 
in  the  lowest  paid  group,  and  that  of  these  girl-work- 
ers 80  per  cent  live  at  home  and  contribute  the  greater 
part  of  their  earnings  to  the  family  budget.  Professor 
Taussig  holds  that  these  might  fairly  come  in  a  differ- 
ent class  from  older  women  who  support  themselves. 
He  then  advocates  a  wage-board  whose  duties  it  should 
be  to  regulate,  standardize,  and  protect  the  wages  of 
women,  and  to  effect  what  is  feasible  in  the  raising  of 
them. 

The  Oregon  law  actually  does  embody  such  a  plan. 
This  law  makes  the  following  provisions  concerning 
working  women:  It  makes  illegal  (i)  unreasonably 
long  hours;  (2)  conditions  detrimental  to  health  and 
morals;  (3)  v;ages  inadequate  for  the  support  of 
women;  (4)  unreasonably  low  wages  for  minors.  The 
law  does  not  undertake  to  define  these  illegalities  in 
detail.  Instead  it  creates  an  Industrial  Welfare  Com- 
mission with  authority  to  determine,  in  particular  oc- 

80 


LEGAL  STATUS  OF  WOMEN 

cupations  and  localities,  what  hours,  conditions  and 
wages  are  actually  prohibited  under  the  law.* 

The  common  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  eight- 
hour  day  legislation  may  be  summed  up  in  the  state- 
ment that  it  materially  advances  the  standard  of  liv- 
ing. Here  again,  however,  there  should  be  a  quali- 
fying clause;  for  sometimes  idle  hours  for  girls  and 
young  women  might  mean  far  greater  harm  than  hours 
of  toil  that  seem  over  long.  It  is  largely  a  question 
of  knowing  what  leisure  really  stands  for.  Time  off 
alone  without  adequate  provision  for  healthful  recrea- 
tion, for  self -improvement,  or  for  some  service  of 
love  or  patriotism  has  caused  more  human  wreckage 
than  long  hours  at  honest  toil. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

The  status  of  woman  under  the  common  law  of  England,, 
and  the  extent  to  which  this  common  law  affects  the 
status  of  women  in  the  United  States. 

A  study  of  the  attitude  of  ecclesiastical  bodies  on  the 
question  of  divorce,  and  the  effect  of  this  attitude 
upon  marriage  and  family  life. 

The  question  of  domicile  as  affecting  divorce  legislation. 

A  study  of  Lichtenberger's  "Social  Causation  as  Affect- 
ing Divorce." 

*E.   V.   O'Hara,  "Wage  Legislation   for  Woman."     Catholic 
World,  100:443-50. 

81 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

A  discussion  of  the  desirability  in  this  country  of  mater- 
nity insurance  laws. 

A  comprehensive  study  and  discussion  of  minimum- 
wage  legislation. 

References 

Adler,  Felix.  "Marriage  and  Divorce."  New  York, 
McClure,  Phillips  and  Co.,  1905. 

Bayles.    "Woman  and  the  Law." 

"8-Hour  Day  for  all  New  England  Women."  Survey, 
36 1269. 

Goldmark,  J.  "The  Supreme  Court  and  the  8-Hour 
Law."    Survey,  33 :6yy-y^. 

Lichtenberger,  James  P.  "Divorce,  A  Study  in  Social 
Causation."     New  York,  1909. 

Mathews,  Shailer,  Editor.  "The  Woman  Citizen  Li- 
brary."   Vol.  7.    Chicago,  The  Civic  Society. 

"Minimum  Wage  for  Women."    Nation,  102  .•610-15. 

O'Hara,  E.  V.  "Wage  Legislation  for  Women."  Catho- 
lic World,  i(X>:443-50. 

Stinson,  Alvah.  "Woman  Under  the  Law."  Boston, 
Henderson  Printing  Co. 

"What  Uncle  Sam  Does  Not  Do  for  Women  in  Indus- 
try."   New  Republic,  7 1324-26. 

White,  Frederick  A.  "Laws  on  Marriage,  Divorce,  and 
Property  Rights  of  Married  Women."  Los  Angeles, 
Baumgart  Publishing  Co.,  1910. 


CHAPTER  VI 

WOMAN  AND  THE  AMERICAN  HOME 

"The  home  is  in  one  sense  merely  a  house  in  which 
one  Hves.  But  in  the  deep  and  racial  sense  it  is  a  place 
prepared  by  two  mating  adults  to  shelter  their  love  and 
their  young,  and  it  is  in  this  fundamental  sense  that  I 
wish  to  consider  it. 

"If  the  home  is  a  place  of  spiritual  peace  and  renewal 
for  adults,  and  a  place  of  safety  and  happiness  for  chil- 
dren, it  fulfils  its  functions;  otherwise  it  falls  short  of 
them.  If  civilization  does  not  supply  for  the  world's 
families  homes  which  perform  these  functions — if  adults 
cannot  obtain  rest  in  their  homes  nor  children  happiness 
— civilization  has  not  yet  deserved  its  name."  ^ 

The  same  writer  in  comparing  homes  of  the  poor 
in  America  with  those  of  the  same  class  in  England 
says: 

"The  homes  of  the  American  poor  have  of  course 
much  the  same  defects  as  those  of  the  English,  or  the 
poor  of  any  other  nation.  Slums  are  plentiful,  squalor 
abounds,  motherhood  is  turned  to  drudgery.  But  the 
laws  protecting  the  mother  and  child  are  for  the  most 
part  better  than  in  England,  with  notable  exceptions. 

^Beatrice  Forbes- Robertson   Hale,  "What  Women  Want,"  p. 
146.     Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  New  York,  1914. 

83 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Maternity  grants  are  unknown,  workmen's  compensation 
acts  almost  so,  child  labor  is  frequent,  and  the  age  of 
consent  often  too  low.  The  difference  lies  rather  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  laws  by  the  courts,  which  breathes 
a   spirit   fairer  to   women." 

Thus  we  may  readily  discover  the  logical  sequence 
of  the  above  chapter  title  as  following  the  discussion 
of  the  "Legal  Status  of  Woman.''  But  the  fine  state- 
ment of  the  significance  of  the  American  home  sug- 
gested in  these  quotations  is  not  to  be  passed  over 
merely  as  a  connecting  link.  It  furnishes  us  as  well 
a  fair  presentation,  at  least  by  implication,  of  the  prob- 
lem which  our  chapter  topic  suggests. 

It  may  truly  be  said  that  the  American  home  rep- 
resents the  high  tide  of  progress  which  the  great  so- 
cializing influences  at  work  in  the  world  have  already 
achieved.  But  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  these 
very  same  movements  toward  ultimate  betterment 
have  brought  immediate  problems  which  render  the 
situation  almost  precarious.  The  condition  is  such 
as  to  call  for  the  utmost  care  and  watchfulness  and 
sanity  of  all  friends  of  the  home  and  family. 

In  the  first  place,  the  great  industrial  revolution 
which  has  resulted  in  the  building  up  of  our  great 
factory  system  has  robbed  the  home  largely  of  its 
earlier  economic  significance.    Jane  Addams  is  doubt- 

84 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

less  right  when  she  says  that  "It  is  hard  to  see  how 
the  basic  industries  of  England  could  have  been  de- 
veloped without  the  thousands  of  women  and  girls 
who,  in  spite  of  public  opprobrium,  followed  their  old 
occupations."  ^  But  when  this  happened  there  also 
began  to  go  out  from  the  home  one  of  the  chief  factors 
in  maintaining  its  solidarity  under  the  old  common 
law  regime.  Today  practically  all  of  the  industrial 
pursuits  belonging  with  the  immediate  interests  of  the 
home,  aside  from  ''keeping'*  the  house  and  preparing 
and  serving  the  meals,  have  been  taken  over  by  out- 
side organized  labor  groups.  Even  in  the  few  simple 
home  duties  that  remain  there  are  no  longer  any  con- 
siderable number  of  persons  available  for  such  serv- 
ice who  are  at  all  fitted  for  it.  The  housewife  who 
is  also  a  mother  of  children,  even  where  the  family 
income  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  expenditure,  is 
scarcely  able  to  employ  any  one  competent  to  relieve 
her  from  part  of  the  drudgery  incident  to  home  and 
family  life.  In  the  case  of  the  poor  the  situation  is 
often  one  of  unspeakable  misery.  As  has  been  seen 
this  country  makes  no  provision,  as  yet,  for  maternity 
insurance;  and  our  laws  concerning  workmen's  com- 
pensations and  employer's  liability  acts,  while  better 
than  the  condition  implied  in  Mrs.  Hale's  statement  as 

'  "Woman  in  Industry,"  Jane  Addams.    American  Academy  of 
Political  and  Social  Science  Proceedings.    Vol.  56. 

85 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

quoted  above,  are  not  such  as  to  render  much  aid  in 
the  cases  of  maternity  among  working  women. 

The  removal  from  the  home  of  so  large  an  economic 
element  together  with  the  transfer  of  the  education  of 
the  children  almost  entirely  from  the  home  to  the 
school  have  left  the  home  without  the  facilities  and  in- 
centives for  the  training  of  young  girls  in  the  homely 
duties  and  occupations  calculated  to  qualify  them  in 
turn  for  the  responsibilities  of  homekeeping  and  moth- 
erhood. Thus  the  young  wife  and  mother  of  today 
must  find  out  by  hard  experience  what  formerly  was 
thoroughly  taught  in  the  home.  And  in  this  process 
of  experimental  learning  home  and  family  ties  are 
frequently  put  to  a  severe  test  and  the  peace  and 
companionship  which  alone  give  significance  to  the 
home  are  seriously  affected  if  not  destroyed  alto- 
gether. 

It  is  true  that  the  schools  and  colleges  are  now  com- 
ing to  the  rescue  in  the  preparation  of  girls  and  young 
women  for  home  duties;  but  there  still  must  remain 
the  great  change  in  the  atmosphere  and  significance 
of  the  home  and  of  family  life  which  these  transfers 
involve.  And  there  are  other  changes  of  similar  im- 
port. In  the  earlier  days  of  our  nation  the  care  of 
defectives,  as  the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  crippled  and  in- 
firm, was  provided  for  in  the  homes.  Now  the  special 
school,  or  infirmary,  or  hospital,  the  home  for  the 

86 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

aged  or  the  orphaned,  take  the  place  of  the  home  in 
providing  such  humanitarian  services.  Even  in  mat- 
ters of  general  aid  to  the  very  needy  of  the  com- 
munity such  organizations  as  the  associated  charities 
assume  all  responsibilities. 

Thus  again  there  is  taken  from  the  home  those 
many  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  the  altruistic 
spirit  and  the  practice  of  certain  fundamental  Chris- 
tian virtues  which  these  various  services  represent. 
These  changes,  with  the  Sunday  School  for  early  re- 
ligious training,  have  greatly  narrowed  the  sphere  of 
activities  and  influence  of  the  home.  They  have 
made  of  family  life  a  peculiarly  specialized  feature  in 
the  social  group,  and  the  effective  continuance  of  it 
as  the  essential  unit  of  social  organization  demands 
the  most  careful  consideration  and  study  of  all  friends 
of  democracy. 

We  believe  with  George  Elliott  Howard  ^  that  "as 

the  ideal  of  the  family  rises  civilization  advances." 

The  family  rather  than  civilization  is  at  the  base  of 

all  social  progress.     But  how  is  this  position  to  be 

maintained  ?    Woman  is,  and  must  ever  be,  the  central 

figure  in  the  home.     In  some  way  we  must  be  able 

to  retrieve  for  the  home  life  every  essential  force 

'"The  Education  of  Women  and  Sex  Equality."  George 
Elliott  Howard.  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science  Proceedings,  Vol.  56. 

87 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

which  may  have  gone  out  from  it  with  these  great 
socializing  influences  which  have  been  and  still  are 
affecting  the  life  of  the  family  in  our  midst.  Are 
we  giving  to  woman  today  all  the  power  and  influence 
she  may  need  in  her  efforts  to  preserve  the  integrity 
of  the  home?  How  can  she  win  back  the  essence  of 
that  which  has  gone  out  in  the  fields  of  education,  of 
humanitarian  service,  and  of  economic  pursuits  with- 
out  having  a  full  and  equal  voice  and  eligibility  in 
shaping  the  public  policies  which  control  these  great 
fundamental  interests  of  society?  What  is  there  so 
sacred  in  the  constitution  of  a  liberty-loving  nation, 
framed  for  it  when  the  essential  conditions  of  free- 
dom were  little  understood,  that  should  stand  in  the 
way  of  conserving  the  home,  the  central  institution 
of  a  democratic  state? 

We  have  seen  that  divorces  are  on  the  increase, 
and  Professor  Lichtenberger  has  shown  us  *  that  the 
causes  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in  the  results  of  social- 
izing influences  upon  the  home.  Then  the  way  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  divorces  is  to  counteract  these 
effects  by  aiding  in  those  readjustments  of  home  life 
which  the  situation  demands.  And  this  is  where 
woman  is  most  likely  to  be  expert.  As  was  seen  in  an 
earlier  chapter^   it  was  women  who  first  practiced 

*See  supra,  Ch.  V. 
^  Supra,  Ch.  II. 

88 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

the  arts  of  peace  in  the  perfection  of  which  govern- 
ments have  long  since  been  busy;  and  women  have 
continued  in  practice  to  this  day. 

George  Elliott  Howard  ®  puts  the  whole  matter  in 
a  comprehensive  way  when  he  says:  **Two  things 
are  urgently  needed  in  the  process  of  socialization: 
that  the  woman  should  have  an  opportunity  to  do  a 
full  share  of  the  world's  work;  and  that  the  man 
should  take  a  full  share  in  the  work  of  the  home." 
Such  a  readjustment  generally,  already  an  established 
fact  in  many  American  homes,  would  mean  a  fuller 
companionship  among  all  the  members  of  the  family 
— of  wife  with  the  husband  and  both  patents  with 
their  children.  It  would  mean  a  fuller  intelligence 
on  the  part  of  both  parents  on  all  matters  of  public 
interest  in  community  and  state;  for  each  one  would 
supplement  the  other  from  the  field  of  widest  indi- 
vidual experience. 

Such  a  situation  would  mean  a  broad  initial  intelli- 
gence for  each,  such  intelligence  as  was  pointed  out 
in  the  first  chapter  as  essential  to  good  citizenship. 
The  schools  and  colleges  are  already  taking  care  of 
this  part  of  the  problem,  although  the  proportion  of 
young  women  who  go  on  through  college  is  not  yet 
what  it  should  be. 

Just  here  we  meet  with  a  strong  traditional  weak- 

*See  supra. 

89 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ness  in  man's  conception  of  universal  education.  There 
are  many  men  still  whose  limited  vision  of  the  possi- 
bilities and  needs  of  democracy  compel  them  to  as- 
sume that  there  must  always  be  a  lower  stratum  of 
unintelligence  to  do  the  low  grade  drudge-work  of 
the  world.  In  the  same  class,  largely,  are  those  who 
still  believe  that  college  training  for  the  average 
woman  is  not  only  unnecessary  but  undesirable.  They 
set  up  the  plea  that  college  trained  women  avoid  mar- 
riage; or,  if  married,  they  shun  maternity.  Much 
more  in  keeping  with  the  facts  is  this  statement  by 
George  Elliott  Howard :  '^  "Educated  women  are  not 
shunning  marriage  or  maternity;  but  they  are  declin- 
ing to  view  matrimony  as  a  profession,  as  their  sole 
vocation,  or  to  become  merely  childbearing  animals. 
Let  us  not  worry  about  the  destiny  of  college  women. 
It  is  simply  wrong  wedlock  which  they  are  avoiding.'* 
If  woman  is  to  take  the  part  for  which  nature  and 
environment  have  best  fitted  her  in  this  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  American  home  she  will  have  ample  need 
for  the  kind  of  training  which  our  best  high  schools 
and  colleges  can  give  her.  She  will  need  this  as  the 
equal  companion  of  her  husband  both  as  citizen  and 
in  the  role  of  parenthood.  For  how  else  can  she  hope 
to  bring  the  needed  mental  insight  and  comprehen- 
sion to  the  study  of  those  social  problems  for  the 

''See  supra. 

90 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

solution  of  which  she  is  to  cast  her  ballot  or  even 
frame  the  necessary  laws  and  direct  the  procedure  ?  It 
is  she,  largely,  who  will  not  only  be  the  exemplar  but 
the  close  adviser  for  the  daughters  of  her  home  and 
community  when  they,  in  turn,  are  preparing  to  as- 
sume the  responsibilities  of  twentieth  century  home 
making.  To  do  this  wisely  she  will  have  good  need  of 
all  that  a  well-ordered  college  education  can  give.  For 
must  it  not  be  through  woman  herself,  largely,  work- 
ing in  and  through  the  home,  that  our  girls  are  to  be 
set  free  from  the  baneful  influences  of  the  traditions 
and  superstitions  which  womankind  has  inherited  from 
the  early  asceticism  of  the  Christian  Church  and  from 
the  old  Roman  law? 

And  then  there  are  the  sons,  also,  to  be  set  right 
in  their  attitude  toward  the  opposite  sex  and  con- 
cerning marriage.  They,  too,  have  an  inheritance 
from  the  same  asceticism,  the  discrediting  of  the  mar- 
ried state,  the  degradation  of  woman,  and  the  result- 
ing double  standard  of  social  morality  for  the  sexes. 
In  this  duty  the  man  should  certainly  share;  but  he 
will  do  this  most  effectively  when  he  has  given  a  sym- 
pathetic ear  to  the  woman's  view-point.  These  are 
conditions  which  public  sentiment  alone,  that  public 
sentiment  which  comes  from  well-ordered  homes 
where  intelligence  dwells,  can  change  permanently  for 
the  better;  for  without  the  strong  backing  of  such 

91 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

public  sentiment  the  making  of  laws  to  compel  such 
an  attitude  will  largely  be  in  vain. 

The  problem  of  social  distinctions  is  one  which 
seriously  affects  the  home  and  its  problems.  There 
are  two  classes  of  social  distinctions  which  thus  enter 
into  the  home  and  family  life  and  are  inseparably 
bound  up  with  it.  These  are,  (i)  distinctions  based 
on  personal  and  moral  cleanliness  and,  (2)  those  based 
on  wealth  and  family  traditions;  really  four  different 
forms,  although  usually  somewhat  closely  related  as 
given.  Every  wise  and  loving  mother  feels  bound  to 
guard  her  children  against  contact  with  immoral  peo- 
ple or  the  children  from  immoral  homes.  She  feels 
a  like  obligation,  perhaps  less  keenly  but  still  insistent, 
to  guard. them  against  disease  contagions  which  usually 
appear  first  among  the  children  from  homes  where 
squalor  and  general  uncleanliness  reign.  Such  condi- 
tions lead  inevitably  to  a  drawing  apart  into  social 
groups  with  the  resultant  problems  presented  in  edu- 
cation, in  intermarriage,  and  in  the  general  social  atti- 
tude of  the  home. 

Still  more  unfortunate,  especially  in  its  effect  upon 
the  children,  is  the  class  of  distinctions  growing  out 
of  ostentatious  wealth  or  inordinate  pride  of  family 
and  birth.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  these  two 
classes  of  social  distinctions  is  the  more  undesirable, 
the  more  immoral,  in  fact.     Both  are  far-reaching 

92 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

in  their  influence  upon  the  home.  Parents  are  ex- 
cusable sometimes  if  they  keep  their  homes  aloof 
from  the  immoral  and  the  uncleanly;  but  there  is  no 
good  ground  for  aloofness  because  of  one's  wealth  or 
one's  family.  Such  distinctions,  at  least,  have  no 
proper  place  in  a  democracy. 

It  is  through  the  social  atmosphere  of  the  home  it- 
self that  these  social  maladjustments  must  be  cured. 
And  it  is  the  mothers,  who,  after  all,  are  closest  to 
the  children  in  the  formative  period  of  their  ideals. 
Through  them  should  come  the  instilling  of  such  ideals 
as  to  real  social  values  as  shall  eliminate  from  the 
growing  generations  all  unworthy  imsocializing  fac- 
tors. 

Considered  in  this  sense,  the  home  represents  a 
peculiar  social  interest.  In  a  way  it  means  that  the 
community  as  a  whole  has  a  home  interest  and  an  in^ 
terest  in  every  home.  It  is  here,  we  believe,  that 
women  are  to  help  to  find  the  way  to  the  solution  of 
this  most  difficult  social  problem.  We  are  our  broth- 
ers'— our  neighbors' — ^keepers.  The  community  it- 
self has  a  home  function,  as  a  result  of  the  great  so- 
cializing process.  To  analyze  this  function,  to  under- 
stand its  relation  to  the  individual  home,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  to  the  homes  of  the  community  collectively 
on  the  other,  is  a  task  for  the  accomplishment  of  which 
women,  mothers,  are  peculiarly  endowed.     Next  to 

93 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  mothers  in  fitness  for  this  work  and  with  the  ad- 
vantage of  special  training  for  their  task,  are  the 
women  who  teach  in  the  schools. 

The  entire  situation  as  the  teacher  in  the  kinder- 
garten sees  it,  and  as  related  to  mothers  in  the  homes, 
is  well  expressed  in  a  paper  on  "Child  Hygiene  and 
the  Parent,"  by  Anna  Irene  Jenkins,  of  Pasadena, 
California.*  The  following  statement  in  regard  to  the 
attitude  of  the  parent  is  especially  interesting  here : 

There  is:  (a)  a  small  percentage  of  mature,  keen 
mothers  who  have  studied  long  and  experimented  intel- 
ligently, and  who  are  going  forward  with  assurance  of 
ultimate  success ;  (b)  a  much  larger  percentage  of  moth- 
ers just  awakening  to  a  need  in  themselves,  anxious  to  be 
shown  how  to  use  intelligently  this  information  which 
they  are  told  exists;  (c)  a  great  mass  of  una  wakened 
womanhood  immersed  in  a  search  for  diversion,  and  for 
daily  bread — dwellers  in  palace  and  cottage ;  (d)  a  dawn- 
ing appreciation  that  a  father  is  a  parent;  (e)  a  pro- 
gressive awakening  along  social  and  civic  lines.  What 
was  once  delegated  to  private  philanthropy  now  becomes 
civic  duty  in  preserving  and  improving  the  citizenship 
of  the  land. 

Here  then  we  have  stated  the  prevailing  situation 
with  regard  to  the  home  function  of  the  community 
as  it  appears  in  the  work  of  the  kindergarten.  This 
real  home  interest  furnishes  a  bond  of  sympathy,  a 

•  Proceedings  of  National  Education  Association,  1913,  pp. 
662-65. 

94 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

community  of  interests  which  should  bring  into  close 
and  hearty  cooperation  all  classes,  whether  dwellers 
in  palace  or  cottage.  And  there  are  many  things  to 
indicate  that  this  is  really  coming  about.  There  is 
already  a  nation-wide  movement  for  the  organization 
of  mother's  clubs,  parent-teacher  associations,  and 
mothers'  congresses  for  this  very  purpose  of  cooper- 
ating in  all  things  related  to  child  welfare.  The  Fed- 
erations of  Women's  Clubs,  state  and  national,  are  aid- 
ing greatly  in  this  work.  Parents  more  and  more  fre- 
quently seek  direct  cooperation  with  the  schools  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  care  and  education  of  their 
children.  The  schools,  also,  through  visiting  teachers 
and  visiting  nurses  are  seeking  a  like  direct  coopera- 
tion with  the  homes.  All  this  lies  along  the  line  of 
ultimate  solution  of  this  phase  of  the  home  problem. 
The  placidity  of  home  life  in  the  United  States  is 
also  seriously  affected  by  the  conditions  existing  with 
reference  to  domestic  service.  The  situation  is  one 
brought  about  in  no  small  degree  by  that  narrowing 
of  the  sphere  of  economic  activities  of  the  home  al- 
ready discussed  in  this  chapter.  The  tendency  to  nar- 
row and  specialize  household  service  has  made  that 
service  less  democratic  and  at  the  same  time  more 
monotonous.  The  rapid  increase  in  wealth  and  the 
number  of  well-to-do  homes  has  also  seriously  affected 
the  situation  by  greatly  increasing  the  relative  cost 

95 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

of  competent  service.  Thus  again  the  homes  of  the 
poor  and  the  middle  classes  suffer;  and  it  is  in  these 
same  homes  that  we  usually  find  the  largest  number  of 
children. 

The  relatively  low  wage  which  women  can  get  in 
homes  other  than  those  of  the  rich  or  very  well-to-do 
makes  it  impossible  to  secure  any  except  the  most 
crude  and  unsatisfactory  service.  For  those  who 
serve  the  life  is  barren,  there  is  little  opportunity  for 
wholesome  recreation,  or  for  self-improvement  where 
such  a  thing  is  desired;  and  any  real  social  life  is 
practically  impossible.  The  type  of  persons  available 
does  not,  as  a  rule,  add  favorably  to  the  home  environ- 
ment as  it  affects  children.  Emerson  spoke  with  his 
usual  insight  when  he  said :  "The  reform  that  applies 
itself  to  the  household  must  not  be  partial.  It  must 
correct  the  whole  system  of  our  social  living.  It  must 
come  with  the  plain  living  and  high  thinking;  it  must 
break  up  caste,  and  put  domestic  service  on  another 
foundation.  It  must  come  in  connection  with  a  true 
acceptance  by  each  man  of  his  vocation, — not  chosen 
by  his  parents  or  friends,  but  by  his  genius,  with 
earnestness  and  love."  And  this  reform  is  still  wait- 
ing in  very  many  of  our  American  homes.  May  we 
not  look  for  the  coming  of  that  day,  through  the  sym- 
pathetic and  wholehearted  action  of  our  women,  when 
those  who  do  service  in  the  household  shall  not  be 

96 


WOMAN  AND  THE  HOME 

without  honor  in  our  homes  ?  Nothing  but  the  coming 
of  real  democracy  among  women,  based  on  a  com- 
mon high  intelHgence,  can  ever  bring  such  a  solution 
to  this  problem  of  domestic  service.  In  the  language 
of  Lucy  Maynard  Salmon :  ^ 

The  general  remedies  therefore  must  include  a  wider 
prevalence  of  education  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
not  its  counterfeit,  information;  that  mental  education 
which  results  in  habits  of  accuracy,  precision,  and  obser- 
vation, in  the  exercise  of  reason,  judgment,  and  self- 
control,  and  that  education  of  character  which  results  in 
the  ability  constantly  to  put  one's  self  in  the  place  of 
another.  There  must  be  scientific  training  and  investiga- 
tion in  economic  theory,  history,  and  statistics,  especially 
in  their  application  to  the  household,  and  an  increased 
popular  knowledge  of  all  scientific  subjects  concerning 
the  home,  those  which  secure  the  prevention  of  economic 
and  material  waste  in  the  household  as  well  as  those 
which  concern  the  questions  of  production  for  it.  The 
educational  forces  must  "pull  from  the  top"  and  draw 
domestic  service  into  the  general  current  of  industrial 
development. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

An  investigation  and  report  on  the  efforts  being  made  to 

solve  the  problem  of  domestic  service. 
How  is  the  home  to  make  up  for  the  relative  lack  of 

•Lucy   Maynard    Salmon,    "Domestic   Service   in   the   United 
States,"  p.  203.     New  York,  Macmillan,  1897. 

97 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

opportunity  for  training  in  the  exercise  of  the  al- 
truistic spirit? 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  kind  of  education  best 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  women  who  are  to  become 
home  builders. 

What  means  are  now  provided  by  which  to  carry  the 
home  ideals  into  general  community  life? 

References 

Coolidge,  Mrs.  Mary  R.  "Why  Women  Are  So."  New 
York,  Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1912. 

Hale,  Beatrice  Forbes-Robertson.  "What  Women  Want." 
New  York,  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  19 14. 

Howard,  George  E.  "The  Education  of  Women  and 
Sex  Equality."  Proc.  American  Academy  of  Politi- 
cal Science.    Vol.  56. 

Richardson,  B.  J.  "The  Woman  Who  Spends."  Bos- 
ton, 1904. 

Salmon,  Lucy,  Maynard.  "Domestic  Service  in  the 
United  States."    New  York,  Macmillans,  1897. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

Social  life  as  it  affects  woman  may  be  classed 
under  three  heads :  ( i )  The  social  life  engaged  in  as 
wife  and  mother  for  the  prestige  of  the  husband  and 
family  and  for  what  is  believed  to  be  for  the  good  of 
the  children.  (2)  A  social  life  chosen  for  the  general 
welfare  of  the  community — a  social  worker.  (3)  As 
a  member  of  that  peculiar  class  known  as  "society" — 
the  leisure  class — whose  social  aim  is  self -gratification 
without  mentioning  the  cost. 

In  the  various  professional  fields  and  in  business, 
wherever,  in  fact,  men  are  called  upon  to  deal  with 
many  of  their  fellows  a  man's  social  status  usually 
counts  for  much  in  the  struggle  for  a  successful  career, 
no  matter  what  the  motive  may  be.  Most  men  of 
affairs,  in  the  crowding  of  business  engagements  and 
professional  duties,  come  to  rely  largely  on  their  wives 
for  leadership  in  such  matters.  They  look  to  the 
women  of  their  homes  to  plan  events  and  to  find  the 
way  towards  social  advancement  for  themselves  and 
for  the  family  group.     Such  a  service  from  the  wife 

99 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

springs  naturally  from  her  love  for  her  husband  who 
to  her  is  the  only  man.  As  Lewis  Leopold  ^  would 
put  it : 

The  sentiment  felt  by  a  woman  in  love  towards  the 
man  of  her  choice  is  itself  the  greatest,  the  most  per- 
fect, and  most  successful  prestige  in  the  world — a  pres- 
tige which  is  not  due  to  chance,  nor  to  the  bungling 
activity  of  man,  but  a  masterpiece  of  nature,  the  result 
of  a  repeated  activity  of  her  will,  and  ensouled  of  her 
soul. 

So  it  is  that  many  good  and  great  women  devote 
their  lives,  that  is  the  part  of  life  left  free  from  ordi- 
nary domestic  affairs,  to  thus  building  up  a  place  for 
their  husbands  and  families  as  social  factors  in  the 
community  in  the  warmth  of  whose  influence  good 
people  generally  are  glad  of  a  place.  Where  there  are 
children  this  social  prestige  of  husband  and  wife  car- 
ries over,  in  most  instances,  to  sons  and  daughters  as 
they  approach  the  adult  stage.  Thus  love  for  hus- 
band and  mother  love,  blending,  furnish  a  powerful 
and  perfect  normal  motive  for  this  type  of  social  ac- 
tivity. 

Where  this  motive  does  not  develop  into  a  ruthless 
ambition  that  looks  beyond  the  pecuniary  abilities  of 
the    family,    the    resulting   good    fellowship    created 

*  Lewis  Leopold,  "Prestige, — A  Psychological  Study  of  Social 
Estimates,"  p.  73.     London,  T.  Fisher  Unwin,  1913. 

100 


THE  SOCIAL  UF£  OF  WOM]eN.  , 

among  friends  and  neighbors  furnishes  one  of  the 
brightest  and  most  hopeful  situations  in  our  demo- 
cratic society.  But  wherever  an  inordinate  ambi- 
tion to  cHmb  to  higher  social  levels  is  developed  the 
results  ultimately  are  likely  to  be  disastrous  to  the 
family  and  a  scar  upon  the  social  life  of  the  com- 
munity. It  is  hard,  yes,  quite  impossible  generally, 
to  restore  such  prestige  when  once  it  is  lost  through 
business  failure  and  the  mortgaging  of  one's  estate. 
Yet  the  prevalent  environment  in  America  has  en- 
couraged extravagant  ideals;  and  the  dream  of  a  suc- 
cess that  was  to  come  has  too  frequently  been  the  un- 
doing of  a  man  whose  wife  could  not  or  would  not 
bide  the  time  of  its  coming. 

The  vital  importance  of  family  hospitality  and  good 
fellowship,  if  only  there  can  be  preserved  with  it  a 
wholesome  spirit  of  friendly  and  normal  emulation, 
can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  Perhaps  no  other  sin- 
gle cause,  outside  of  the  molding  influence  of  the  pub- 
lic schools,  does  so  much  towards  creating  and  main- 
taining that  spirit  of  solidarity  so  essential  as  a  social 
bond.  Whenever  great  interests  are  at  stake  this  com- 
munity fellowship  bond  asserts  itself;  and  rarely  does 
it  fail  to  manifest  sufficient  influence  to  determine  the 
action  or  the  public  opinion  of  the  community  as  a 
whole. 

The  giving  of  one's  self  entirely  to  a  too  narrow 

lOI 


;,  ;:  v    THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

view  of  family  social  life  frequently  defeats  its  own 
ends;  for  there  is  a  larger  social  life  of  the  com- 
munity upon  which  the  social  advancement  of  the 
family  depends.  To  neglect  to  contribute  something 
to  this  life  is  to  limit  by  so  much  the  possibilities  of 
the  family  prestige.  If  there  is  anything  in  the  idea 
that  the  community  is,  in  a  sense,  a  home,  as  expressed 
in  the  preceding  chap'ter,  this  home  feature  in  it  must 
be  vitalized  from  the  real  homes  of  the  families  that 
make  up  the  community. 

This  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  second  form 
of  social  life  for  women — that  of  the  social  worker 
who  seeks  the  general  welfare  of  the  community 
whether  that  be  circumscribed  and  local  or  whether 
it  be  the  larger  community,  as  state  or  nation.  In 
no  equal  period  of  our  national  history  does  there  ap- 
pear such  a  rapid  evolution  of  social  activity  as  has 
appeared  within  the  last  twenty  years  in  this  form  of 
social  life  devoted  to  the  community.  It  has  led  to 
the  establishment  of  innumerable  social  centers  in  city 
and  country  alike;  to  social  settlements  in  congested 
regions  where  dwell  the  poor  and  the  outcast  of  the 
world.  It  has  been  the  basis  for  numerous  organiza- 
tions, for  liberal  financial  endowments,  and  for  spe- 
cial training  of  expert  workers  in  this  field  of  human 
salvage. 

And  in  this  great  work  woman  leads ; — woman,  un- 

I02 


THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

married,  teaching  in  the  schools,  perhaps,  but  still  find- 
ing a  place  to  lend  a  hand  for  social  betterment;  or, 
like  Jane  Addams,  with  her  whole  life  devoted  to  this 
work  of  undoing  the  damage  to  the  race  that  the  ruth- 
lessness  of  man  has  wrought,  man  who  has  exploited 
human  beings  even  as  he  has  exploited  the  natural  re- 
sources of  mother  earth  in  order  to  gain  wealth  and 
power.  Or  it  is  woman  married  and  a  home  builder 
and  keeper,  yet  finding  some  time  to  give  for  the 
sake  of  her  neighbor's  home,  her  neighbor's  child,  as 
well  as  for  her  own;  woman  with  means,  like  a  Mrs. 
Russell  Sage,  establishing  foundations  for  carrying 
forward  the  blessed  work  of  human  and  social  re- 
habilitation of  the  world's  "down  and  out"  classes. 

Probably  four-fifths  of  all  the  workers  in  this  phase 
of  social  life  are  women.  This  is  not  stated  in  any 
spirit  of  criticism  of  man  and  the  part  he  plays  in  this 
field.  The  aim  here  is  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
so  many  great  and  noble  among  women  find  time  and 
inclination  to  give  themselves  to  the  solution  of  this 
great  problem — the  darkest  side  of  our  democracy. 
And  who  shall  ever  be  able  to  estimate  fairly  the 
mother  influence  of  women  who  have  experienced  ma- 
ternity thus  injected  into  this  great  socializing  effort? 

How  different  is  the  outlook  when  we  come  to  con- 
sider the  third  group  of  women  in  social  life — the 
feminine  "leisure  class" — whose  social  aim  has  here- 

103 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tofore  been  self -gratification  and  whose  time  and  sub- 
stance have  been  spent  in  seeking  new  thrills  to  oc- 
cupy the  heavily  hanging  hours.  In  this  discussion  of 
the  "Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class"  Thorstein  Veblen 
states  the  case  in  these  words :  ^ 

"By  virtue  of  its  descent  from  a  patriarchal  past,  our 
social  system  makes  it  the  woman's  function  in  an  espe- 
cial degree  to  put  in  evidence  her  household's  ability  to 
pay.  According  to  the  modern  civilized  scheme  of  life, 
the  good  name  of  the  household  to  which  she  belongs 
should  be  the  special  care  of  the  woman ;  and  the  system 
of  honorific  expenditure  and  conspicuous  leisure  by  which 
this  good  name  is  chiefly  sustained  is  there rore  the  wom- 
an's sphere.  In  the  ideal  scheme,  as  it  tends  to  realize 
itself  in  the  life  of  the  higher  pecuniary  classes,  this  at- 
tention to  conspicuous  waste  of  substance  and  efforts 
should  normally  be  the  sole  economic  function  of  the 


It  will  readily  appear  to  the  reader  that  the  abnor- 
mal development  of  the  desire  for  family  prestige 
described  in  the  discussion  of  woman's  social  rela- 
tion under  the  first  head  *  might  readily  lead  to  such 
a  situation  as  that  expressed  in  the  italicised  portion 
of  the  above  quotation.  Normally  the  main  state- 
ment would  also  apply  to  the  legitimate  aspect  of  the 

'  Thorstein  Veblen— "Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class,"  p.  i8o. 
New  York,  Macmillan,  1899. 
'The  Italics  are  the  writer's. 
*See  supra. 

104 


THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

struggle  for  prestige.  But  the  tendency  very  fre- 
quently is  to  produce  that  situation  in  families  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  use  of  the  phrase  "social  climb- 
ers." 

Generally  speaking,  however,  Mr.  Veblen  evidently 
had  in  mind  the  society  par  excellence  group,  and  espe- 
cially the  women  of  wealth  and  leisure.  Undoubtedly 
this  type  goes  far  back  into  history.  It  represents  a 
social  condition  which  has  appeared  in  emphasized 
form  when  nations  have  begun  to  decline,  as  in  Rome, 
or  as  a  prelude  to  great  national  upheavals,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  French  Revolution.  With  this  class  the 
selfish  motive  strongly  predominates.  From  the  stand- 
point of  good  citizenship  they  would  put  a  strong  em- 
phasis on  their  "rights"  as  individuals,  but  would  press 
softly  or  evade  altogether  the  idea  of  social  obliga- 
tion which  is  of  the  very  essence  of  a  democracy. 
Their  social  bond  is  not  even  sympathy  of  tastes.  It 
is  merely  the  sharing  of  expensive  pleasures.  As  one 
writer  has  expressed  it,  "the  giver  of  a  new  thrill  or 
the  inventor  of  a  fetching  stunt  is  more  of  a  hero  than 
a  Pasteur  or  a  Peary."  They  read  of  social  centers 
and  settlements  with  a  yawn  of  disinterestedness  or 
send  a  check  for  a  few  thousands  of  dollars  with  a 
vague  notion  that  this  giving  of  financial  aid  to  a 
cause  may  serve  in  some  sort  of  vicarious  way  for  the 
deed  they  owe  to  human  fellowship.    "Their  own  no- 

105 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tion  is  that  society  exists  to  sweeten  with  the  charm  of 
social  exclusiveness  the  joint  enjoyment  of  the  costly." 

The  above  quotation  is  taken  from  a  characteriza- 
tion of  the  society  of  Gotham,  in  which  the  names  of 
a  number  of  women  socially  conspicuous  because  of 
their  wealth  and  lavish  expenditure  have  stood  forth 
in  sharp  outline  in  recent  years.  The  winter  arena 
of  this  social  group  is  the  great  city  and  its  environs 
or  somewhere  in  southern  climes;  the  summer  social 
season  centers  at  Newport,  where  a  modest  estimate 
of  expenses  for  keeping  a  house  for  a  season,  or  from 
July  first  to  September  tenth  is  at  least  $100,000.  It 
has  been  said,  indeed,  that  "to  live  in  Newport  as  the 
Newporters  do,  one  must  spend  all  his  time  and  money 
at  it.*' 

Here  in  the  "cottage  district"  are  to  be  found  the 
bathing  beaches  with  solarium,  and  with  crystal  palace 
for  banqueting  and  for  balls.  For  a  woman  of  the 
"ruling"  class  a  day's  program  might  include  some- 
thing like  the  following : 

An  elaborate  toilet  to  suit  the  day's  special  feature. 

Breakfast. 

Summoning  of  the  social  secretary  in  order  to  make 
plans  for  entertainments,  and  send  out  invitations. 

Bathing  at  the  beach,  followed  by  luncheon. 

A  spell  at  bridge. 

A  garden  fete  for  charity's  sake,  or  dinner,  or  both, 
followed  by  a  ball. 

106 


THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

In  all  these  matters  woman  reigns  supreme.  Fifty 
per  cent  of  the  men  "stand  ready  to  pledge  careers, 
fortunes,  honor  itself,  to  the  shibboleth  of  'class.'  " 
The  other  fifty  per  cent  submit  with  mild  protests, 
chafe  and  curse  in  secret,  or  send  "regrets"  for  "un- 
avoidable detention"  by  business.  "Nearly  half  of 
all  the  prominent  families  concerned  of  first  rate  celeb- 
rity and  any  size  have  some  sort  of  a  cause  celebre — 
divorce  or  worse." 

If  there  is  a  leisure  class  in  the  West  we  are  told 
that  "it  is  the  idle  wives  of  busy,  successful  men." 
They  have  their  city  homes,  their  summer  cottages 
on  northern  lakes  or  in  the  mountains,  and  their  win- 
ter bungalows  on  the  Pacific  coast  or  in  the  region 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  general  attitude  of  these 
people  has  not  been  especially  different  from  the  East- 
ern group,  except  that  the  men  in  the  case  have  been 
less  submissive,  perhaps,  and  more  apt  to  leave  the 
women  to  their  own  resources  in  the  search  for  pleas- 
ures. But  even  in  the  West  the  snobbery  of  the  home 
atmosphere  has  gradually  gotten  into  the  systems  of 
the  men  and  made  its  appearance  in  their  efforts  at 
exclusiveness  in  club  life,  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
in  their  professional  or  business  relations.  For  both 
East  and  West  it  is  readily  apparent  that  Mr.  Veblen's 
"theory"  as  to  the  "leisure  class"  would  hold  good 
and  "the  sole  economic  function  of  the  woman"  has 

107 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

been  the  '^conspicuous  waste  of  substance  and  effort." 
Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  thoughtful  men  and 
women,  true  American  citizens,  ^ave  been  disturbed 
at  such  a  situation?  They  have  known  full  well  that 
this  social  group  whose  motto  has  been  "all  for  self," 
whether  consciously  or  not,  was  flouting  the  ideals  of 
democracy.  They  have  represented  the  autocracy  of 
wealth.  They  have  been  "slackers"  if  not  even  "alien 
enemies"  in  the  midst  of  a  liberty-loving  people. 

As  far  as  the  women  in  the  first  and  second  types 
of  social  life  are  concerned  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they 
have  been  living  well  up  to  their  civic  and  social  obli- 
gations as  citizens.  But  much  that  they  have  tried 
to  do  has  been  opposed  or  offset  by  the  anti-social  atti- 
tude of  the  "idle  rich." 

And  what  shall  we  say  of  the  thousands  of  women, 
married  and  single,  for  whom  there  is  no  social  life 
except  that  which  they  may  glimpse,  from  time  to 
time,  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  social  workers? 
They  are  the  toilers  in  factories,  sweat  shops,  retail 
stores,  restaurants,  and  as  domestic  servants.  Their 
lives,  at  best,  are  sordid,  scrappy,  filled  with  untold 
dangers,  temptations,  misery.  If  they  marry  it  is  fre- 
quently as  a  way  of  escape  which  more  often  brings 
added  drudgery  as  children  come.  Nominally,  they, 
too,  are  citizens.     Many  of  them  serve  their  country 

io8      • 


THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

better  than  they  know,  yet  their  dreams  do  not  come 
true. 

To  their  more  fortunate  (?)  sisters  at  the  other 
social  extreme  they  have  been  only  a  necessary  evil, 
a  means  of  putting  through  the  drudgery  part  of  their 
plans  for  costly  pleasures.  And  in  order  to  keep  up 
the  pace  which  their  women  spenders  set  many  of 
the  men  have  had  to  study  out  new  schemes  for  mak- 
ing their  capital  return  inordinate  profits  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  masses.  The  lower  the  wage  scale  of  the 
workers  the  larger  the  dividends  of  capital  would  be. 
So  men  have  squabbled  and  dickered  and  deceived  as 
to  the  wages  in  order  to  keep  their  incomes  up  to  the 
level  of  expenditure  which  their  idle  wives  had  de- 
creed. 

It  is  strange  that  in  a  land  of  liberty  and  plenty 
men  and  women  could  so  deceive  themselves  as  to 
who  must  pay  the  price  of  their  ruthless  wastefulness. 
They  have  connived  at  keeping  up  the  wage  their 
money  brought  by  keeping  down  that  which  might  give 
free  life  and  happiness  to  thousands  who,  as  employees 
of  the  captains  of  industry  who  exploit  the  capital  of 
the  rich,  were  the  slaves  of  an  autocracy  which  no 
Czar  could  ever  surpass.  Now,  as  war  clouds  darken 
over  us,  Congress  considers  ways  and  means  of  taking 
of  the  profits  of  the  rich  to  pay  the  added  bills.  Why 
not  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war  find  ways  of  limiting 

109 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

to  a  fair  standard  the  wages  of  capital  ?  Is  it  because 
liberty  means  license  to  those  who  have  the  intellect 
and  the  power?  And  are  these  the  ones  who  are  afraid 
of  women's  votes? 

In  England  we  are  told  that  the  war  is  bringing  all 
to  a  common  level  of  national  service;  that  young 
women  from  the  higher  classes  work  side  by  side  with 
those  of  humble  station.  But  how  pitiful  a  showing 
for  our  modem  civilization  that  nothing  short  of  a 
great  world  cataclysm  threatening  the  very  lives  of 
nations  could  bring  about  a  condition  so  much  to  be 
desired.  Let  us  hope  that  in  the  future  we  may  be  so 
organized  socially  as  to  keep  alive  that  complete  com- 
munity feeling  upon  which  all  democratic  order  and 
endurance  must  finally  rest. 

Of  an  entirely  different  character  is  that  social  life 
through  organization  in  which,  today,  we  find  women 
of  every  class.  In  clubs,  in  church  societies,  through- 
out the  entire  country  we  find  women  organized  for 
study,  for  discussion,  and  for  action.  They  are  seek- 
ing to  know  the  latest  thought  in  regard  to  social  well- 
being  not  only  at  home  but  in  every  land.  They 
are  studying  the  educational  system,  problems  of  com- 
munity improvement,  recreational  interests,  in  order  to 
be  prepared  to  act  intelligently  in  putting  through  such 
reforms  and  improvements  as  shall  tend  to  make  bet- 
ter  communities   and   better   citizenship.      To   these 

no 


THE  SOCIAL  LIFE  OF  WOMEN 

groups  of  women,  using  their  spare  hours  in  self-im- 
provement in  order  that  they  may  the  better  serve, 
this  country  owes  far  more  than  the  masses  of  men 
will  ever  realize. 

And  now  as  the  war  clouds  lower  we  see  a  wonder- 
ful transformation  among  the  upper  social  classes 
of  America.  There  are  no  longer  the  "idle  rich.'* 
Gone  are  most  of  their  gay  festivities,  their  heedless 
expenditure  for  pleasure  and  dissipation.  Instead  we 
see  the  women  now  side  by  side  with  others  working 
for  the  Red-Cross  service,  selling  liberty  bonds,  caring 
for  families  of  soldiers,  raising  funds  to  supply  deli- 
cacies and  entertainment  for  our  boys  in  camps  and  in 
the  trenches  across  the  seas.  The  souls  of  the  women 
of  our  nation  are  at  last  fused  into  one  great  force, 
devoted,  tender  and  self-sacrificing  for  the  cause  of  a 
better  humanity. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

An  investigation  into  the  nature  of  the  social  bond  which 

in  a   time   of   national   danger  tends   to   eradicate 

social  divisions. 
A  study  of  those  qualities  in  women  which  seem  to  fit 

them  for  social  service  in  a  much  higher  degree  than 

is  the  case  with  men. 
An  investigation  into  the  extent  to  which  the  idle  rich 

III 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

are  in  any  way  contributing  to  any  cause  which  has 
for  its  purpose  the  social  betterment  of  the  country. 

References 

Barnes,  Earl.  "Woman  in  Modem  Society."  New  York, 
B.  W.  Huebsch,  1912. 

Nearing,  Scott  and  Nellie  M.  S.  'Woman  and  Social 
Progress."    New  York,  Macmillans,  1912. 

Schreiner,  Olive.  "Woman  and  Labor."  London,  T.  F. 
Unwin,  191 1. 

Spencer,  Mrs.  Anna  G.  "Woman's  Share  in  Social  Cul- 
ture."   New  York,  M.  Kennerley,  191 3. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SPORTS  AND  RECREATION  FOR  GIRLS  AND  WOMEN 

When  one  takes  time  to  think  about  it  there  appear 
to  be  no  such  things  as  sports  and  modes  of  recrea- 
tion pecuHar  to  women.  Practically  all  sports  and 
pastimes  engaged  in  by  men  are  open  to  women  of 
today.  History  tells  us  of  the  Spartan  women  who 
trained  their  bodies,  even  as  men,  for  great  muscular 
strength  and  endurance.  Mythology  also  tells  of  the 
Amazons,  the  fighting  women,  who  warred  against 
the  Greeks.  In  the  later  period  of  the  Roman  Empire 
we  are  told  that  the  women  were  much  out  of  doors, 
riding  and  walking.  European  women  generally  seem 
to  have  been  rather  strongly  inclined  to  athletic  ex- 
ercise and  to  have  developed  greater  physical  vigor 
and  endurance  than  their  descendants  in  America. 

However,  when  we  come  to  consider  the  modem 
woman's  attitude  towards  recreation  we  find  no  com- 
prehensive scheme  corresponding  to  the  needs  of  all 
classes  of  womankind.  For  the  most  part  their  pas- 
times are  of  a  social  character,  shared  with  men,  and 
are  more  apt  to  lead  to  weakness  and  ennui  than  to 

T13 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

normal  physical  vigor.  Is  this  all  there  is  for  women 
in  the  field  of  sport?  Or  shall  we  agree  with  that 
writer  who  says  that  "sport  is  not,  or  should  not  be, 
a  social  function?"^ 

As  one  runs  through  the  list  of  sports  engaged  in  by 
women  he  finds  only  those  types  which  are  character- 
istically engaged  in  by  men.  In  fact  there  are  very 
few  sports,  either  indoor  or  afield,  known  to  men  in 
which  women  do  not  participate.  This  fact  by  itself 
is  probably  not  so  important  as  the  one  suggested  by 
the  above  question,  i.  e,,  the  motive  of  feminine  sport. 
If  it  is  solely  that  of  association  with  the  male  sex 
then  we  should  have  to  agree  with  Mr.  Aflado.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  motive  is  primarily  that  of  a 
desire  for  wholesome  recreation  and  general  physical 
betterment  we  should  agree  that  any  and  all  forms  of 
sport  which  have  been  found  conducive  to  good  health 
along  with  good  morals,  whether  enjoyed  in  a  social 
way  or  taken  exclusively,  should  be  approved. 

Generally  speaking,  however,  women  of  leisure 
make  use  of  out-of-door  sports  largely  in  order  to 
counteract  such  enervating  pastimes  as  those  of  the 
ball-room  or  card  table.  While  this  is  undoubtedly 
better  for  them  than  to  omit  the  sports,  it  is  certainly 
to  be  regretted  that  such  a  considerable  number  of 
women,  who,  if  any  at  all,  should  always  be  "fit," 

*  F.  G.  Aflado,  Little^s  Living  Age,  269 :38o. 

114 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

should  find  it  necessary  to  use  pathologically  the  means 
best  adapted  to  real  personal  betterment. 

Our  schools  and  colleges  no  longer  neglect  to  pro- 
vide training  for  girls  and  young  women  in  the  various 
lines  of  sport.  Our  best  high  schools  have  their  gym- 
nasiums and  many  of  them  swimming  pools  open  to 
the  use  of  the  girls  under  the  direction  of  experts  in 
physical  education.  Here  the  girls  not  only  have  the 
lighter  gymnastic  training,  but  also  engage  in  games 
of  basketball  and  swimming  exercises.  The  outdoor 
track  and  field  sports  also  are  open  to  many  of  them. 
In  the  colleges  all  these  things  and  more  are  provided. 
Young  women  swim,  row,  ride,  run,  jump,  golf,  play 
tennis,  shoot,  and  take  cross-country  walks.  All  lead- 
ing colleges  for  women  and  most  coeducational  in- 
stitutions have  regularly  established  physical  director- 
ships for  the  young  women. 

These  college  trained  young  women  are  thus  pre- 
pared to  go  out  either  as  social  workers,  school  teach- 
ers, or  leaders  among  the  leisure  class  of  women,  and 
teach  others  to  love  sport.  The  woman  of  leisure 
undertakes  to  offset  the  results  of  excessive  gaiety  of 
the  social  season  by  participating  in  such  sports  as 
golf,  lawn-tennis,  sailing,  rowing,  swimming,  cross- 
country walking,  riding,  motoring,  running,  field 
hockey,  skating,  and  in  some  cases  gardening,  fishing, 
hunting,  and  going  on  camping  expeditions.    She  has 

115 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

learned  that  the  preservation  of  feminine  beauty  is  de- 
pendent upon  such  vigorous  outdoor  life.  In  winter 
she  transfers  her  sports  mostly  indoors,  except  skating, 
skiing  and  coasting,  to  such  pastimes;  as  bowling,  fenc- 
ing, hand-ball,  squash,  aesthetic  dancing,  and  the  more 
quiet  games  of  cards,  billiards  or  pool. 

Women  workers  include  two  groups — ^brain  work- 
ers and  those  less  intellectually  employed  in  the  in- 
dustries and  by  the  big  commercial  establishments. 
For  the  first  group  recreation  is  provided  either 
through  their  home  relations,  when  they  are  so  for- 
tunate as  to  be  at  home,  or  through  various  clubs  and 
organizations,  as  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  or  organizations 
similar  to  the  Mobile  Business  Women's  Club  of  Mo- 
bile, Alabama.  This  latter  organization  has  an  $8,000 
house  with  a  capacity  for  200  guests  at  Magnolia 
Beach  on  the  east  side  of  Mobile  Bay.  The  mem- 
bership is  composed  of  women  from  the  professions, 
business  and  trades.  Besides  caring  for  members  the 
Club  also  undertakes  some  philanthropic  work  for 
women  not  able  to  pay  the  cost  of  a  stay  at  the  Club 
House.  This  is,  indeed,  an  ideal  arrangement  which 
might  well  be  repeated  by  very  many  cities  that  are 
now  without  any  such  provisions  in  the  interests  of 
women  workers.  But  to  be  really  successful  it  must 
come  from  the  initiative  of  the  women  concerned. 
As  an  illustration  of  what  a  small  city  may  do  through 

116 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

wcMtnan's  initiative  the  story  of  the  Bay  Tree  Inn,^ 
LaPorte,  Indiana,  furnishes  an  excellent  example. 

The  big  problem  in  this  matter  of  recreation  and 
social  life  for  girls  and  young  women* has  to  do  with 
the  second  group,  with  the  thousands  of  girls  and 
young  women  in  our  cities  without  any  home  life,  the 
women  workers  in  shops,  factories,  department  stores, 
mail-order  establishments,  and  offices.  These  young 
women  and  girls  are  not  intellectual  as  a  class.  For 
most  of  them  education  has  been  limited.  Life  to 
them  is  largely  barren,  hard  and  exacting.  Too  often 
the  only  escape  from  the  racking  grind,  or  even  brief 
respite  from  their  sordid  existence,  is  to  be  found 
through  a  doorway  that  leads  to  degradation  and 
shame.  Long  hours  and  a  low  wage  bar  them  from 
effective  membership  in  any  organized  movement  for 
wholesome  recreation  and  social  enjoyment.  They 
represent  a  very  heavy  portion  of  the  toll  of  human 
lives  derqanded  by  that  shameless  greed  which  ruth- 
lessly seeks  its  own  base  and  unsocial  ends  through 
such  exploitation  of  human  necessity. 

Naturally  this  problem,  stupendous  in  its  propor- 
tions as  well  as  in  its  significance,  has  long  held  the 
attention  of  social  workers  and  thoughtful  people 
who  are  at  all  conscious  of  the  facts.  The  situa- 
tion in  the  country  towns  and  villages  and  rural  dis- 

*  American  City,  10:352-4. 

117 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tricts,  while  different,  is  little  less  startling  when 
closely  scrutinized.  Among  other  things  this  rural 
situation  is  undoubtedly  the  cause  of  driving  many 
girls  into  the  cities  as  a  way  of  escape  from  the  dull 
monotony  of  country  life.  Various  organized  ef- 
forts have  been  launched  to  meet  and  solve  this  de- 
plorable situation.  The  churches  have  done  some- 
thing, but  their  present  organization  is  not  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  the  situation.  The  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
of  our  cities  has  been  and  is  trying  hard  to  find  the 
way  to  take  up  the  task,  but  it  is  handicapped  by  its 
fixed  rules  and  standards  and  by  conventional  law. 
"The  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  is  with- 
out a  social  program.  The  need  of  one  is  urgent," 
writes  Dr.  Anna  L.  Brown,  Secretary  for  Hygiene  and 
Physical  Education.^  Dr.  Brown  quotes  from  writ- 
ings by  the  World's  Committee,  and  the  following 
quotation  is  especially  significant  here: 

The  World's  Committee  is  at  this  time  especially  con- 
cerned over  the  problem  of  recreation.  As  girls  move 
more  freely  in  the  community  and  take  their  place  with 
men  in  industrial  and  business  life,  they  will  not  be  con- 
tent with  a  lesser  freedom  in  their  hours  of  leisure.  What 
can  we  do  to  offer  our  girls  and  young  men  proper  op- 
portunities of  meeting  for  healthy  enjoyment  and  recre- 
ation together? 

'  Emergency  City  Bulletin,  Y.  W.  C.  A.    Published  by  National 
Board,  N.  Y.,  1917. 

118 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

Eaually  significant  is  the  further  discussion  of  the 
recreation  problem  by  Dr.  Brown.  We  quote  her  own 
words : 

Our  recreations  have  taken  on  the  complexion  of  our 
indoor  habits  of  living.  If  the  amusements  we  know 
most  about  are  hot  house  amusements  we  have  that  fact 
to  blame.  A  larger  life  would  produce  a  larger  social 
content — more  leisure  hour  interests  and  activities,  and  in 
this  lies  the  hope  for  the  solution  of  our  moral  prob- 
lems. Morality  is  not  learned  in  isolation.  It  is  the  fruit 
of  social  discipline,  of  learning  to  respect  other  people's 
rights  and  subjugating  selfish  desires.  It  is  expressed  in 
terms  of  conduct.  For  a  man  the  highest  encomium  upon 
his  conduct  is  manliness,  for  a  woman,  womanliness. 
Men  and  women  need  training  in  comradeship — our  social 
program  should  include  more  of  the  active  sports  which 
develop  the  practice  of  fair  play,  the  spirit  of  sportsman- 
ship. 

Surely  here  are  stated  some  very  fundamental  and 
far-reaching  truths.  If  women  are  to  play  their  full 
parts  as  citizens  in  a  democracy  some  such  ideal  as  to 
leisure  and  recreative  activities  must  become  their 
united  aim. 

But  there  should  be  much  more  in  the  way  of  rec- 
reation for  young  women  than  that  to  be  had  in  a 
social  way.  The  latter  would  represent  only  a  portion 
of  the  fruition  of  recreational  activities  and  sports 
which  should  be  provided  separately  for  women.    The 

119 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

National  League  of  Women  Workers  was  organized 
about  thirty  years  ago.  It  represents  nine  eastern 
states  and  has  a  membership  of  about  14,000.  The 
avowed  mission  of  this  League  is  to  sound  the  note 
of  democracy  for  women.  Its  leaders  see  the  limita- 
tions of  the  various  religious  organizations  although 
they  fully  appreciate  the  work  these  organizations  are 
doing.  They  say  that  the  people  do  not  understand 
the  needs  of  girls;  that  they  should  have  organiza- 
tions separate  from  men  and  a  place  in  social  centers 
for  housing  but  without  loss  of  independence. 

The  various  city  surveys  of  recreation  facilities 
seem  also  to  emphasize  the  need  of  better  special  pro- 
vision for  the  recreations  of  women.  The  situation 
and  need  with  regard  to  playgrounds  is  clearly  set 
forth  in  the  report  on  the  Indianapolis  survey  made  in 
1914  from  which  we  quote  the  following: 

Playgrounds  for  girls  from  twelve  up,  and  including 
young  women,  have  become  an  important  factor  in  recre- 
ation systems.  Custom  or  the  total  lack  of  facilities 
has  too  often  denied  to  girls  the  exercise  and  play 
which  are  their  natural  right.  Space  for  girls  can,  in 
some  instances,  be  provided  in  connection  with  children's 
playgrounds,  or  on  some  of  the  more  park-like  areas  of 
a  city,  where  tennis,  playground  ball,  basket  ball,  field 
hockey,  and  other  outdoor  exercises  can  be  provided  for 
girls  and  young  women  without  the  difficulties  of  ad- 

120 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

ministration  which  would  be  present  in  connection  with  a 
field  used  by  large  numbers  of  boys  and  men.* 

Thus  we  see  that  with  our  playground  associations, 
social  centers,  church  and  Y.  W.  C.  A.  workers,  we 
still  have  here  a  vast  problem.  Back  of  it  all  is  the 
home  life  or  the  lack  of  it;  the  thousands  of  girls 
and  young  women  in  ill-kept  boarding  houses ;  the  low 
wage,  and  the  long  hours  of  work.  Suitable  homes 
for  working  girls  should  be  a  matter  of  first  considera- 
tion. Well-organized  schemes  for  financiiig  vacations 
for  working  girls  should  be  encouraged,  such  as  the 
Vacation  Savings  movement.  The  Public  Schools 
should  be  opened  for  recreation  centers  wherever  con- 
ditions will  permit.  To  quote  a  former  mayor  of  the 
city  of  Minneapolis: 

The  chief  function  of  government  is  to  protect  the 
citizen  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  his  or  her  natural  rights, 
including  the  opportunity  for  abundant  and  wholesome 
recreation  and  decent  social  intercourse;  but  in  a  great 
city  this  opportunity  is  wholly  denied  to  thousands  of  citi- 
zens, young  and  old,  simply  because  the  necessary  facili- 
ties are  not  provided.^ 

Over  against  all  the  efforts  which  many  good  citi- 
zens are  making  for  the  improvement  of  the  social  and 

*  "Indianapolis  Recreation  Survey,"  Published  by  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association  of  America,  F.  R.  North, 
Secretary,  1914. 

"Quoted  from  an  Editorial  in  the  American  City,  7:203,  1912, 
from  a  speech  by  Mayor  J.  C.  Haynes,  Minneapolis. 

121 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

recreational  interests  of  girls  and  young  women  are 
the  commercial  recreations — the  dance  halls  of  the 
saloons,  the  cafes  and  cabarets,  the  cheap  theaters,  and 
the  poorly  censored  or  wholly  unlicensed  moving  pic- 
ture shows.  Think  of  the  lure  to  tired,  homeless,  so- 
cially submerged  girls  of  these  brilliantly-lighted  re- 
sorts; of  the  music  and  merriment  of  the  dance  hall 
and  the  cabaret;  of  the  moments  of  forget  fulness  with 
the  moving  picture  play  or  the  cheap  theater  with  their 
portrayal  of  degrading  ideals  and  base  motives;  of 
the  attractiveness  of  summer  amusement  parks. 
Through  all  such  means  are  the  leisure  and  play-time 
of  city  youth  exploited  by  profiteers. 

No  wonder  that  such  investigations  as  that  made 
by  the  Illinois  State  Senate  in  19 13  should  result  in 
recommending  better  public  recreation  facilities,  more 
careful  censorship  and  licensing  of  amusement  places, 
and  a  more  efficient  police  guard  at  the  doors  of  dance- 
halls.  This  is  one  reason  why  women  are  needed 
on  the  police  force.  In  just  such  situations  is  there 
a  demand  for  the  office  of  "City  Mother"  advocated 
by  the  same  Mayor  of  Minneapolis  quoted  above. 
"Recreation,"  writes  C.  M.  Goethe,^  "is  a  world  need." 
Like  all  other  great  fundamental  human  needs  it  is 
a  temptation  to  its  exploitation  by  degraded  human 
selfishness.    In  so  far  as  any  government  neglects  the 

"C  M.  Goethe,  in  Survey,  31 :27-8. 

122 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

protection  of  its  citizens  against  such  rapacity  it  is  a 
failure.  At  no  point  is  democracy  more  severely  on 
trial.  The  first  great  step  towards  a  complete  and 
lasting  cure  is  that  sense  of  mother-responsibility  for 
all  the  children  and  youth  of  a  community  which  can 
come  only  with  woman's  equal  responsibility  with  men 
for  all  social  organization. 

The  most  baffling  thing  about  the  entire  situation  is 
the  inertia  of  tradition,  of  custom,  of  social  conven- 
tions as  they  affect  woman  and  her  place  in  the  social 
group.  Truly  here  "the  education  of  the  children  must 
wait  upon  the  education  of  their  parents."  As  the 
trouble  begins  in  the  home  there  also  must  any  radical 
cure  begin;  but  to  do  this  the  treatment  must  first  be 
applied  in  the  schools  where  parents  are  being  edu- 
cated. Here  is  where  "social  convention"  steps  in  and 
interferes.  As  an  illustration  let  us  consider  the  social 
dance.  Because  men  have  exploited  it  as  one  of  the 
most  popular  social  pastimes  of  youth  various  eccle- 
siastical bodies  have  condemned  it  as  "an  instrument 
of  Satan,"  and  certain  it  is  that  as  an  attachment 
of  the  wine-room  it  probably  deserves  that  appella- 
tion. The  manner  of  its  use  by  certain  groups  of  the 
leisure  class  has  not  helped  the  situation.  As  a  result 
this  very  popular  and  proper  form  of  social  recrea- 
tion, especially  when  not  distorted  or  made  a  basis 
of  evil  thought  by  the  character  which  well-meaning 

123 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Christian  people  have  given  it,  has  by  these  same  peo- 
ple been  unconditionally  consigned  to  the  Devil. 

A  very  pointed  illustration  of  the  above  situation 
occurred  in  one  of  the  large  public  high  schools  of 
Chicago.  The  principal,  seeing  the  gravity  of  the 
problem  of  the  social  life  of  the  boys  and  girls,  sought 
to  counteract  certain  evil  influences  of  the  neigh- 
borhood. He  had  a  good  high  school  orchestra  and 
a  gymnasium  with  a  good  floor.  Under  his  personal 
supervision,  and  always  with  trusted  teachers  present, 
he  permitted  the  pupils  to  dance  while  the  orchestra 
practiced  after  the  luncheon  period  or  at  the  close  of 
the  afternoon  session.  In  due  time  he  was  visited  by 
a  delegation  of  ministers  who  protested  warmly 
against  what  they  considered  a  demoralizing  practice 
for  a  public  school.  "Well,  gentlemen,"  said  the  prin- 
cipal, "these  young  people  will  go  to  the  dance  halls 

over  yonder  on  street  if  they  do  not  dance 

here.  What  would  you  suggest  as  a  substitute?"  It 
is  said  that  the  ministers  went  away  gravely  thought- 
ful, while  the  boys  and  girls,  themselves  the  happier 
because  of  the  decent  surroundings,  went  on  with  their 
dancing. 

In  Chicago,  as  in  many  of  our  cities  today,  thanks 
to  the  efforts  of  public  welfare  organizations  into 
which  many  good  women  have  thrown  their  influence, 
the  public  playgrounds  and  social  centers  are  care- 

124 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

fully,  ably,  supervised.  Much  gratitude  is  also  due 
such  men  as  Henry  S.  Curtis  for  tireless  leadership 
in  playground  organization.  But  many  more  leaders 
are  needed,  trained  leaders,  who  are  able  to  direct  girls 
and  young  women  in  accomplishing  what  they,  them- 
selves, desire  and  plan  to  do.  Both  men  and  women 
are  needed  to  supervise  intelligently,  sympathetically, 
the  recreational  centers  for  men  and  women.  They 
are  needed  in  city  and  country  alike. 

But  in  this  work  there  is  no  place  for  pharisaism. 
There  must  be  that  sympathy  that  can  be  patient 
enough  to  take  the  young  women  and  girls  on  the  level 
at  which  their  environment  has  placed  them  and  in- 
spire in  them  the  initiative  to  move  forward  and  up- 
ward. These  leaders  need  to  be  richly  imbued  with 
that  spirit  which  says,  "Neither  do  I  condemn  you. 
Go,  and  sin  no  more." 

And  in  this  work  of  social  conservation  there  is  a 
great  service  which  commercialized  recreation  can  ren- 
der; but  first  it  must  be  made  clean.  Rightly  used 
the  photo-play  and  even  the  "cheap"  theater  may  be- 
come powerful  allies  of  the  social  worker.  These 
alone,  among  all  the  recreational  amusements,  are  able 
to  offer  most  effectively  at  the  same  time  real  mental 
and  moral  stimuli ;  to  open  new  worlds  of  thought  and 
of  possible  living  to  these  prisoners  of  commerce  and 
industry;  to  bring  a  brighter  ray  of  heaven's  light 

125 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

from  beyond  the  mirk  and  gloom  of  their  sordid  work- 
a-day  lives. 

In  all  this  effort  for  salvage  from  this  mad  whirl 
of  our  cities  and  from  the  equally  deadly  calm  of  the 
country,  the  vital  principle  of  initiative  and  partici- 
pation, of  realized  democracy,  must  not  be  lost  to 
view.  Concerted  action  is  in  itself  one  of  the  great- 
est of  social  conservators.  For  the  weak  and  vacil- 
lating, the  weary  and  tempted,  there  is  no  greater  as- 
surance of  freedom  than  that  which  sympathetic  fel- 
lowship and  cooperation  can  give.  It  is  not  the  im- 
position of  rules  and  restrictions  ready-made  by  or- 
ganizations that  is  needed,  but  the  voluntary  establish- 
ment, out  of  their  own  experiences,  of  the  rules  and 
principles  that  shall  govern  them.  Herein  doubtless 
lies  the  explanation  of  many  failures  on  the  part  of 
would-be  "uplifters." 

Through  all  efforts  at  wisely  directed  recreation 
there  should  be  ever  at  hand  the  opportunity  for  men- 
tal stimulus,  for  gradually  advancing  to  higher  levels 
and  broader  fields  of  thought.  Mere  pleasure  seeking, 
the  endless  round  of  sports  and  games  and  social  rec- 
reations will,  in  time,  grow  stale  and  meaningless  with- 
out this  widening  and  deepening  of  the  mental  life. 
Here,  as  has  been  suggested,  the  photo  play  will  help. 
But  greatest  of  all,  perhaps,  is  the  organized  work  for 
meeting  this  need  which  is  being  carried  on  through 

126 


SPORTS  AND  RECREATION 

the  public  libraries.  Many  a  life  wreckage  has  been 
saved  through  the  ministry  of  an  interesting  book. 
So,  likewise,  art  and  music  minister,  silently  but 
mightily. 

When  we  think  of  what  womanhood  means  to  the 
world — of  motherhood,  sisterhood,  wifehood;  of  the 
beautiful  friendships  of  noble  women — what  is  there 
that  men  should  deny  or  withhold  that  may  help  to 
rescue  and  uplift  the  vast  crowds  of  young  woman^ 
hood  from  this  mad  and  hopeless  struggle  in  this 
"dead  sea'*  of  modern  civilization? 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

An  investigation  into  the  matter  of  whether,  there  are 
sports  and  games  best  designed  for  women  and  girls 
exclusively. 

A  study  of  the  provisions  for  sports  and  recreation  for 
girls  and  women  in  any  given  community  or  state 
with  a  view  to  ascertaining  what  might  be  done  in 
way  of  improvement. 

A  thorough  study  of  the  playground  movement  in  Amer- 
ica. 

An  investigation  as  to  the  extent  to  which  provision  is 
made  in  cities  for  separate  space  for  the  recreations 
of  women  and  girls. 

A  study  of  the  vacation  savings  movement,  the  method 
of  its  operation  and  results  attained. 
127 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

References 

Bowen,  Louise  De  Koven.  "Safeguards  for  City  Youth 
at  Work  and  at  Play."  New  York,  Macmillans, 
1914. 

Dudley,  Gertrude,  and  Kellor,  Frances.  "Athletic  Games 
in  the  Education  of  Women."  New  York,  Henry 
Holt  and  Co.,  1909. 

Indianapolis  Recreation  Survey.  Published  by  Play- 
ground and  Recreation  Association  of  America.  F. 
R.  North,  secretary,  19 14. 


CHAPTER  IX 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 


In  quoting  in  the  first  chapter  from  the  book  on 
^'Ethics  of  Citizenship"  by  John  Maccunn  we  found 
that  author  naming  "the  aUiance  of  reHgion"  as  one 
of  the  quahties  of  good  citizenship.^  Our  discussion 
of  the  essential  relations  and  activities  of  woman  as  a 
citizen  would  certainly  be  lacking  in  a  very  important 
sense  if  we  omitted  to  say  anything  of  her  spirit  and 
service  in  the  field  of  religion. 

Reference  has  also  been  made  in  the  second  chapter 
to  the  fact  that  women  have  had  an  active  part,  from 
very  primitive  times,  in  religious  rites  and  ceremonies. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  fair  to  say  that  the  priesthood 
of  various  early  religious  cults  was  either  assigned 
definitely  to  woman  as  priestess  or  took  its  general 
character  from  practices  inaugurated  by  women.  The 
Greek  had  his  gods  and  goddesses,  the  Hebrew  his 
prophet  and  prophetess,  the  early  Christians  their 
deacons  and  deaconesses,  and  all  of  these  their  women 
as  teachers  of  religion. 

The  twentieth  century  in  America  finds  us  with 

^  Chapter  I,  p.  8. 

129 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  Christian  religion  dominant,  with  a  liberal  rep- 
resentation of  Jews,  and  in  smaller  numbers  are  to 
be  found  followers  of  Mohammed,  Buddah  and  Zoro- 
aster. Among  Christians  we  find  the  great  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  bodies  of  communicants,  the 
latter  especially  representing  a  long  list  of  denomina- 
tions and  sects.  Within  the  limitations  and  laws  of 
these  groups,  both  Christian  and  Jewish,  the  relation 
of  woman  to  the  active  social  function  of  religion  is 
essentially  the  same. 

Among  all  Christian  churches  of  the  United  States 
43.1  per  cent  were  males  and  56.9  per  cent  females  ac- 
cording to  statistics  reported  in  1906.  Of  the  Roman 
Catholic  body  50.7  per  cent  were  women,  and  of  the 
Protestants  60.7  per  cent.  Among  Protestant  bodies 
the  following  per  cents  of  female  communicants  are 
of  interest  as  indicating  the  relative  inclination  of 
women  as  compared  with  men  to  active  church  rela- 
tionship and  service. 

Adventist  Bodies. .  .63.2%     Friends S3-^% 

Baptist  Bodies 61.5%  Lutheran   Bodies. .  .53.9% 

Christians 59-6%  Methodist  Bodies. .  .61.5% 

Church     of     Christ,  Presbyterian  Bodies. 62.1% 

Scientist 72.4%  Protestant     Episco- 

Congregational    65.9%         pal  Church .64.5% 

Disciples  of  Christ . ,  60.0%  Reformed  Bodies ...  57.  i  % 

Dunkers 57-3%     United  Brethren 59-9% 

Evangelical   Bodies .  60.0% 

130 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

In  the  days  of  the  early  church  throughout  the  East 
women  were  teachers  of  their  own  sex  by  necessity,  as 
male  teachers  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  apart- 
ments of  the  women.  Likewise  most  of  their  church 
service  was  along  womanly  lines  as  this  was  inter- 
preted at  that  time.  Thus  besides  instructing  women 
and  children  they  served  as  nurses  and  in  extending 
the  hospitality  of  family  and  church  to  visitors. 
Women  also  served  as  deaconesses  (or  official 
widows),  presbyteresses,  prophetesses  and  female 
bishops.  A  notable  exception  to  this  role  for  the 
women  of  the  early  church  was  the  case  of  Paula 
who,  an  able  Hebrew  scholar,  assisted  Jerome  in  trans- 
lating the  Bible.  Among  the  very  early  church  names 
of  women  notable  for  their  service  and  hospitality  are 
Mary,  Lydia,  Priscilla  and  Phoebe.  The  influence  of 
these  early  church  women  upon  their  husbands  and 
sons  in  bringing  the  latter  to  recognize  Christianity 
is  said  to  have  been  very  marked. 

With  the  rise  of  the  monasteries  in  the  middle  ages 
women  as  nuns  became  rulers  of  monasteries  and  ex- 
ercised a  profound  influence  on  all  classes,  from  prin- 
cesses to  peasant  women,  through  education  which  cen- 
tered in  these  institutions.  It  was  during  this  period 
chiefly  that  the  various  monastic  communities  of 
women  known  to  us  today  originated.  Among  the 
Roman  Catholic  communities  of  women  noted   for 

131 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

their  service  to  humanity  which  originated  during  the 
reign  of  the  monastery  and  later  are  the  Benedictines, 
Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Hospital-Nuns  of  St.  Joseph  of  Bordeaux,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph,  and  many  others. 

Women  were  very  active  during  the  Reformatio^n. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  in  history,  however,  that  although 
Luther  himself  denounced  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and, 
himself  a  monk,  married  a  nun,  yet  the  Reformation 
which  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  inaugurating  put 
an  end  to  woman's  independent  religious  activities  for 
two  hundred  years.  Since  that  time  women  have  or- 
ganized extensively  for  carrying  on  various  philan- 
thropic endeavors  of  a  Christian  character,  including 
work  with  young  people  and  in  the  interests  of  the 
higher  education  of  women.  This  organized  Chris- 
tian service  among  women  has  included  missionary 
work,  both  home  and  foreign,  and  embracing,  also, 
women's  medical  missions;  the  Christian  Temperance 
Union  for  the  teaching  of  temperance ;  Sunday  School 
work,  including  the  writing  of  religious  stories  for 
children.  And  during  the  past  fifty  years  they  have 
been  gradually  invading  the  pulpit,  as  leaders  in  Chris- 
tian thought  and  organized  service. 

The  total  missionary  work  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  the  nineteenth  century  shows  a  record  of 
8,321,963  converts  from  Paganism.     These  converts 

132 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

were  attended  by  12,305  missionary  priests,  4,863 
brothers,  and  17,284  sisters;  that  is,  the  women  work- 
ers in  these  missions,  in  all  lands,  were  slightly  in  ex- 
cess of  the  men. 

In  191  o  there  were  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
fifty  Protestant  missionary  societies  with  2,290  or- 
dained and  lay  missionaries  and  1,580  unmarried 
women  workers  in  the  field.  If  we  were  to  include 
the  number  of  wives  of  missionaries  who  were  also 
at  work  we  should  doubtless  find  that  with  Protestant 
missions  also  the  women  at  least  equaled  the  men  in 
numbers. 

Speaking  of  the  education  of  women  workers  in 
missions  a  paper  read  at  the  Edinburgh  World  Mis- 
sionary Conference  of  19 10  gave  the  following  view 
of  the  women  in  this  field : 

A  vision  of  the  place  of  women  in  the  building  up  of 
the  whole  fabric  of  national  life,  and  a  statesman-like 
conception  of  the  way  to  realize  the  vision  is  urgently 
demanded.  In  the  work  of  national  regeneration  to 
which  we  have  set  our  hand  the  woman  missionary  has 
a  place  of  primary  importance.  She  works  indeed  for 
to-day,  but  she  must  be  trained  to  know  and  act  upon 
the  knowledge  that,  down  to  the  smallest  detail,  her  work 
and  her  life  belong  to  the  great  future.^ 

From  the  reports  we  have  had,  from  time  to  time, 
of  the  work  of  the  mission  schools  and  the  medical 
'Quoted  from  the  Review  of  Reviews,  ^7:z^7' 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

work  of  women  as  missionaries  it  seems  evident  that 
here  woman  has  indeed  found  a  great  field  for  serv- 
ice. And  what  more  direct  and  effective  attack  upon 
the  problem  of  "national  regeneration"  could  possibly 
be  made  than  to  carry  the  enlightenment  of  both 
science  and  Christianity  to  the  mothers,  present  and 
future,  of  any  people?  There  is  no  more  profound 
truth  in  all  philosophy  of  social  and  political  better- 
ment than  that  this  work  should  begin  in  the  home 
and  in  the  school.  And,  as  in  the  days  of  Christ,  the 
healing  of  the  body  opens  an  easy  way  to  the  healing 
of  the  mind. 

But  women  do  not  confine  the  work  of  missions  to 
the  foreign  field.  They  have  organized  the  home  field 
as  well  and  are  doing  a  great  work  in  our  own  land. 
Back  of  all  their  field  work  are  the  women's  mission- 
ary organizations  in  the  churches.  Almost  all  con- 
gregations have  organizations  of  workers.  They  help 
to  raise  funds  for  the  different  missionary  causes  in 
the  United  States;  and,  what  is  perhaps  more  impor- 
tant still,  they  help  greatly  in  keeping  alive  the  mis- 
sionary spirit  of  the  churches.  This  they  do  through 
public  readings  and  discussions  supplemented  by  lec- 
turers from  the  outside,  and  frequently  by  reports  of 
workers  on  a  furlough  from  the  foreign  fields. 

More  recently,  as  we  have  seen,  woman  has  entered 
the  pulpit.    According  to  a  recent  report  of  the  United 

134 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

States  Commissioner  of  Education  there  were  453 
women  enrolled  in  theological  schools  for  that  year, 
or  about  one  woman  for  every  twenty-five  men.  And 
this  is  only  part  of  the  logic  of  the  times  and  of  a  fair 
interpretation  of  the  teachings  of  Christianity.  The 
highest  messages  of  Christ  were  often  confided  to 
women,  as  in  case  of  the  Samaritan  woman  at  the  well, 
and  also  in  the  case  of  Mary  Magdalene.  Both  in 
the  pre-Christian  age  and  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles 
women  were  permitted  to  preach. 

In  England  the  Established  Church  has  blocked  the 
way  to  the  progress  of  woman  in  this  direction  as, 
indeed,  it  has  also  in  education.  This  situation  has 
called  forth  considerable  recent  discussion  from  the 
women  of  England.  In  one  of  these  discussions  on 
*The  Coming  Order  in  the  Church"  an  English  woman 
says :  "The  eternal  truth  that  men  and  women  should 
work  together  for  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  was  plainly  enunciated  by  our  Lord's  attitude  to 
women."  ^  The  editor  of  the  Independent,  comment- 
ing on  this  situation,  makes  the  following  significant 
statement  concerning  the  conditions  here :  'Tn  Amer- 
ica we  have  many  women  ministers,  and  they  are 
above  the  average  of  the  men  ministers,  not,  we  pre- 
sume, because  of  the  superior  ability  of  the  feminine 
sex  as  preachers  but  rather  the  contrary,  because  only 

•E.  Picton-Turberville,  in  19th  Century,  80:521-30. 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

women  of  unusual  capacity  and  conscientiousness  feel 
called  to  that  vocation."  ^ 

From  the  very  nature  of  things  it  seems  probable 
that  woman^s  activities  in  the  pastoral  field  of  church 
service  are  destined  to  grow,  although  not  to  an  equal 
extent  with  men.  At  least  it  seems  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  in  cases  of  large  congregations  where  assist- 
ant pastors  are  needed  such  places  should  come  to  be 
filled  more  and  more  by  women  especially  trained  for 
the  work. 

In  the  Sunday  School  work  women  as  teachers  far 
outnumber  the  men.  Perhaps  the  most  important  fea- 
ture in  this  respect  is  the  fact  that  all  the  children 
in  our  Sunday  Schools  in  the  lower  grades  pass  under 
the  religious  instruction  of  women.  With  the  well- 
known  impressionableness  of  children  such  a  fact  as 
to  their  religious  training  can  not  but  exercise  a  pro- 
found influence  upon  their  subsequent  attitude  to- 
wards a  religious  life  and  service. 

In  the  field  of  sacred  music  as  constituting  a  part 
of  religious  worship  women  also  occupy  a  leading 
place.  As  organists,  choir  singers,  soloists,  violinists, 
and  frequently  also  composers  of  church  music  wom- 
an's influence  is  again  felt  as  a  power  for  spiritual 
uplift  and  religious  devotion. 

One  of  the  many  organizations  of  women  not  dis- 

*  Independent,  87 1401-2. 

136 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

tinctly  religious  yet  having  chiefly  a  religious  motive 
is  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union.  This 
organization  was  established  in  1874  and  in  1916  had 
organized  representation  in  every  state  and  territory 
of  the  United  States,  with  a  total  membership  of  500,- 
000.  Its  work  was  brought  into  special  prominence 
by  Miss  Frances  E.  Willard,  who  served  as  national 
president  from  1879  until  her  death  in  1898.  In  1883, 
under  Miss  Willard's  leadership,  was  organized  the 
World's  W.  C.  T.  U.  of  which  she  was  also  president 
for  the  remainder  of  her  life.  This  now  includes  or- 
ganizations in  over  fifty  nations.  This  organization 
works  through  various  departments.  Probably  the 
greatest  piece  of  work  which  it  has  been  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  accomplishing  in  the  United  States  is 
the  introduction,  through  legislation,  of  the  teaching 
of  temperance  in  our  public  schools.  A  wise  Ger- 
man philosopher  once  said  that  "whatever  a  nation 
would  have  appear  in  the  lives  of  its  people  it  must 
first  put  into  the  schools."  The  action  of  the  W.  C. 
T.  U.  in  this  instance  and  the  results  now  apparent 
in  public  sentiment  and  political  action  are  strongly 
corroborative  of  the  truthfulness  of  the  philosopher's 
utterance.  It  is  evidently  also  quite  the  opposite,  in 
effect,  from  the  application  of  the  same  philosophy  by 
the  German  government  and  the  results  we  see  in  that 
unhappy  nation  today. 

137 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

As  far,  at  least,  as  Qiristianity  is  concerned,  hiss 
tory  seems  to  indicate  that  women  are  more  generally 
and  also  more  deeply  religious  than  men.  In  very 
many  of  the  activities  which  have  been  mentioned  in 
previous  chapters  woman's  chief  motive  appears  to  be 
religious.  In  all  her  numerous  fields  of  philanthropic 
work,  in  many  aspects  of  club  work,  in  educational 
work  and  frequently  in  her  literary  efforts,  woman 
manifests  this  characteristic  motive.  In  fact  there 
is  good  ground  for  the  assertion  made  by  Miss  Ruth 
Rouse  in  the  International  Review  of  Missions  when 
she  says  in  effect  that  all  great  liberating  movements 
including  the  women's  movement  have,  directly  or  in- 
directly, sprung  "from  the  permeation  of  human 
thought  with  our  Lord's  teaching  on  the  value  of  the 
human  soul."  Miss  Rouse  believes  that  this  idea  of 
the  importance  of  personality  and  the  idea  of  service 
as  taught  by  Christ  are  the  two  great  motives  which 
impel  women  in  their  struggle  for  freedom,  both  so- 
cial and  political. 

When  we  consider  that  it  required  the  teachings  of 
Christianity  to  bring  to  the  world's  thought  a  true 
conception  of  the  meaning,  in  all  its  fullness,  of  democ- 
racy in  governing  the  affairs  of  men,  the  thought  ex- 
pressed by  Miss  Rouse  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
whole  matter.  But  the  world  is  a  long  way  yet  from 
being  able  to  substitute  the  motive  of  service  for  the 

138 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

motive  of  individual  selfishness.  With  the  fuller 
emancipation  of  woman  and  her  more  active  entrance 
into  various  fields  of  social  service  we  may  readily 
look  for  her  greater  activity  in  the  interests  of  re- 
ligion. Along  with  this  greater  freedom  will  come 
a  more  general  education  of  woman  and  on  a  higher 
level.  Each  year  sees  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
young  women  who  seek  deliberately  to  prepare  in  col- 
lege for  social  service.  As  the  churches  become  more 
fully  awake  to  their  mission  in  the  world  they  will 
doubtless  find  opportunity  for  increasing  numbers  of 
such  young  women  to  aid  in  the  great  work  of  social 
conservation.  Here,  indeed,  is  a  work  which  is  of  the 
very  highest  essence  and  spirit  of  Christian  teaching. 
For  true  Christianity  is  not  a  matter  of  forms  and 
ceremonies.  It  is,  rather,  a  matter  of  life;  and  its 
mission  is  to  uplift  and  bless  humanity. 

Considered  in  this  sense  Christian  teaching  is  more 
a  matter  of  example  than  of  precept.  It  is,  of  course, 
desirable  that  we  should  know  the  significance  of  the 
past  as  indicating  both  the  trend  and  the  efficacy  of 
religious  growth.  In  other  words,  women  in  the 
home  circle,  in  community  life  and  service,  as  teach- 
ers in  the  schools,  by  constantly  and  consistently  ex- 
emplifying the  spirit  of  service  and  self-sacrifice  for 
the  sake  of  humanity  may  thus  become  the  most  po- 

139 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tent  of  all  influences  for  the  spiritual  uplift  of  the 
world. 

It  would  seem  that  there  is  much  at  stake  as  far  as 
the  Church  is  concerned,  and  much  is  depending  upon 
the  attitude  of  that  institution  towards  the  new  move- 
ments that  are  abroad  in  the  social  order.  As  one 
writer  has  said : 

In  an  era  of  reform,  archaic  institutions  must  neces- 
sarily suffer.  In  the  opinion  of  many — perhaps  in  the 
opinion  of  some  of  those  best  qualified  to  judge — the 
Church  is  such  an  institution.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
Church — quite  distinct  from  religion — will  stand  or  fall, 
according  to  whether  it  shows  itself  willing  to  move  with 
the  times,  whether  it  elects  to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of 
all  that  is  best  in  modern  civilization,  or  whether  it  pre- 
fers to  disregard  the  writing  on  the  wall.'* 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

What  peculiar  advantages  can  women  bring  to  a  more 
extensive  service  in  the  field  of  religion? 

What  has  Christianity  contributed  to  the  welfare  of  wom- 
an in  the  world?  This  is  to  be  considered  on  the 
basis  of  true  Christian  teaching  and  not  any  early 
perversion  of  it. 

Make  a  special  study  of  women  as  physicians  in  foreign 
mission  fields. 

*■  Ronald    H.    Kidd.    "Woman    and    the    Christian    Ministry." 
Westminster  Review,  175:304-8^ 

140 


WOMAN  AND  RELIGION 

Study  the  life  and  work  of  Frances  E.  Willard. 

Make  a  special  study  of  women  as  assistant  pastors  in 

Protestant  churches. 
Make  a  special  study  of  the  great  Catholic  sisterhoods 

and  their  service  to  humanity. 

References 

Bell,  B.  I.  "Woman  and  Religion."  Atlantic,  117:378- 
82. 

Eckstine,  Lina.  "Woman  Under  Monasticism."  Cam- 
bridge University  Press,  1896. 

Kidd,  R.  H.  "Women  and  the  Christian  Ministry." 
Westminster  Review,  175  :304-5. 


CHAPTER  X 

WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

Scene,  the  banks  of  the  Missouri  River  in  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Dakota,  near  where  Chamberlain  is  now  lo- 
cated, in  the  summer  of  1880.  A  band  of  Sioux  In- 
dians, returning  from  a  visit  to  Yankton,  are  crossing 
the  river.  The  men  are  sitting  under  the  trees  smok- 
ing and  evidently  rehearsing  some  of  the  pleasures  of 
the  trip  while  the  women  uncouple  the  wagons,  take 
off  the  wheels,  and  toil  down  the  river's  bank  with 
these  various  wagon  parts  and  huge  bundles  of 
blankets  and  camp  outfit,  loading  them  on  the  gov- 
ernment flat-boat.  Thus  they  are  to  be  transported 
across  the  river  to  the  Lower  Brule  Agency  where 
these  charges  of  the  government  reside.  This  was 
the  writer's  first  real  glimpse  of  the  industrial  status 
of  the  primitive  woman.  The  development  of  the 
fundamental  industries,  as  we  have  already  seen,  began 
with  the  women  of  the  race  and  was  carried  forward 
chiefly  by  them  until  machinery  came  into  general  use. 

With  the  development  of  the  factory  system  began 
the  movement  of  industries  from  the  home,  and  natu- 
rally young  women,  especially,  followed  these  indus- 

142 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

tries  to  the  shops  and  factories.  This  same  process  of 
transfer  is  still  going  on.  Persons^  has  shown  this 
in  his  study  of  the  problem.  He  found  that  the  num- 
ber of  female  wage  earners  in  this  country  had  grown, 
during  the  decade  ending  with  1910,  from  5,319,000 
to  7,608,000,  or  an  increase  of  43  per  cent.  His  statis- 
tics show  conclusively  that  this  transference  of  work- 
ers and  industries  from  the  home  is  going  on  rapidly. 

Along  with  this  transfer  the  number  of  industrial 
occupations  in  which  women  engage  is  also  increasing. 

According  to  the  19 10  census  report  the  total  num- 
ber of  females  ten  years  old  and  over  in  the  United 
States  was  34,552,712.  Of  these  8,075,772,  or  23.4 
per  cent  were  engaged  in  gainful  occupations.  The 
total  number  of  persons,  male  and  female  in  all  gain- 
ful occupations  was  38,167,336.  About  21  per  cent  of 
these  were  females.  Over  and  above  this  number  were 
the  thousands  of  women  who,  as  wives  and  mothers, 
were  giving  all  of  their  time,  with  unremitting  toil,  in 
bearing  and  rearing  children  and  in  household  duties. 

The  distribution  by  occupations  of  girls  and  women 
at  work  was  as  follows : 

I.  Agriculture,  forestry  and  animal  husbandry  1,807,- 
501,  largely  farmers  and  farm  laborers  or  gardeners  and 
garden  laborers. 

*C  E.  Persons,  "Woman's  Work  and  Wages."  Quarterly- 
Journal  of  Economics,  Feb.  1915,  p.  202  and  f. 

143 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

2.  Extraction  of  minerals  1,094,  chiefly  coal  mine  work- 
ers and  general  occupations  connected  with  mining  in- 
dustries. 

3.  Manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries,  1,820,- 
980.  The  largest  number  of  these  were  dressmakers  and 
seamstresses  (not  in  factories),  milliners,  workers  in  tex- 
tile industries,  and  sewing  and  machine  operators  in  fac- 
tories. 

4.  Transportation  106,596,  chiefly  telephone  and  tele- 
graph operators,  laborers,  and  mail  carriers. 

5.  Trade  468,088,  mostly  clerks  and  saleswomen. 

6.  Public  service  (not  elsewhere  classified),  13,558. 
These  were  chiefly  officials  and  inspectors  in  cities,  coun- 
ties, states,  and  United  States. 

7.  Professional  service,  733,885.  These  were  distrib- 
uted as  follows:  Actors,  11,992;  artists,  sculptors,  and 
teachers  of  art,  15,429;  civil  and  mining  engineers  and 
surveyors,  5;  clergymen,  685;  lawyers,  judges  and  jus- 
tices, 558;  musicians  and  teachers  of  music,  84,478;  phy- 
sicians and  surgeons,  9,015;  teachers,  478,027;  trained 
nurses,  76,508;  all  other  divisions,  57,188. 

8.  Domestic  and  personal  service  2,530,846.  The 
largest  numbers  of  these  were  servants  1,309,599,  laun- 
dry workers  520,004,  housekeepers  and  stewards  173,- 
333>  boarding  and  lodging  house  keepers  142,400,  mid- 
wives  and  nurses  (not  trained)   117,117. 

9.  Clerical  occupations  593,224  chiefly  as  stenogra- 
phers, bookkeepers,  cashiers  and  accountants,  clerks 
(other  than  in  stores). 

The  following  statistical  comparison  prepared  by 
Persons  ^  gives  a  good  index  of  the  growth  in  a  de- 

*See  supra. 

144 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

cade  and  also  indicates  some  of  the  transfers  that  are 
going  on : 


Groups 

I 
Per  cent  of  all 
female  workers 
in  each  group 

II 

Per  cent  of 

all  workers 

female 

III 

Increase  of  women 

wage  earners  in  the 

decade 

1900 

1910 

1900 

1910 

No. 

Per  cent 

Domestic    and    Personal 

39.3 

ill 

8.1 
9.5 

345 

23.3 

17.6 

8.8 

15.8 

37. S 

18.5 

9.4 

34.2 

10.6 

48.9 

16.4 
10.6 
36.9 
15.8 

526,000 

4S9.000 
362,000 
243,000 
699,000 

25 

Manufacturing  and  Me- 
chanical Pursuits 

34 
37 

Professional  Service 

Trade  and  Transportation 

56 
139 

Total 

100. 0 

100. 0 

18.3 

20.1 

2,289,000 

43 

Note,  for  instance,  the  decrease  in  the  percentage 
of  female  workers  in  the  first  three  groups  and  the 
increase  in  the  professional  and  trades  groups.  This 
may  mean  in  part  a  change  as  a  result  of  education. 
It  undoubtedly  means  a  transfer  from  the  homes  and 
rural  communities  to  the  offices  or  shops  in  the  city. 
Note  also,  in  column  II,  the  increase  in  the  percent- 
age of  female  workers  in  certain  groups.  In  some  of 
these  it  means  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  men, 
relatively,  while  in  others  it  means  an  actual  increase 
in  the  number  of  female  workers  in  a  group.  This 
latter  appears  strikingly  in  the  last  two  groups  of 
column  III. 

No  little  anxiety  has  been  created  among  men  en- 
gaged in  the  industries  lest  the  entrance  of  women 
into  the  various  fields  might  cause  serious  economic 

145 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

disturbances,  such  as  the  lowering  of  wages.  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  any  very  marked  increase  in 
a  few  industries  might  lead  to  more  intense  competi- 
tion and  a  consequent  lowering  of  wages.  But  gen- 
erally speaking,  any  such  tendency  has  been  offset  by 
woman's  physical  handicap  and  her  lack  of  mechanical 
intelligence. 

Where  many  young  women  living  at  home  are  em- 
ployed there  is  also  a  tendency  to  keep  down  wages. 
In  a  study  made  of  women  in  the  industries  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  in  19 13  it  appeared  that  78  per 
cent  of  the  women  employed  in  department  and  other 
retail  stores  lived  at  home;  and  73  per  cent  of  those 
so  employed  were  under  25  years  old.  The  wages  of 
three-fifths  of  this  group  of  workers  were  less  than 
$7  per  week,  while  the  hours  of  work  of  over  four- 
fifths  of  them  were  from  55  to  59  hours  per  week, 
and  of  nearly  4  per  cent  over  60  hours.  It  thus  ap- 
pears that  one  of  the  factors  entering  into  the  deter- 
mination of  wages  is  the  fact  that  so  many  live  at 
home  and  simply  become  contributors  to  the  family 
budget.  Such  a  situation  would  obviously  increase 
the  difficulties  of  those  who  must  support  themselves 
entirely  out  of  their  meager  earnings. 

The  distribution  of  female  bread  winners  with  ref- 
erence to  the  above  problem  is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing figures  from  the  1900  United  States  survey: 

146 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

Total  number  of  workers  i6  years  old  and  over.  1,232,268 

Per  cent  of  these  living  at  home 64.8 

Per  cent  boarding 35.2 

Number  of  workers  boarding  (about) 430,000 

Of  those  living  at  home  the  distribution  as  to  family- 
relationship  was  as  follows: 

Heads  of  families 11.9% 

Living  with  father 26.3% 

Living  with  mother 12.2% 

Living  with  other  relatives i4-5% 

It  thus  appears  that  more  than  one-third  of  these, 
mostly  young  women,  engaged  in  industrial  service  are 
compelled,  in  their  struggle  for  a  living,  to  compete 
with  the  two-thirds  who  are  living  in  homes  of  par- 
ents or  other  relatives.  The  economic  result,  unless 
a  minimum  wage  is  established  by  law,  will  be  to  throw 
their  labor  on  the  market. 

The  minimum  wage  problem  and  the  working  day 
have  been  a  matter  of  concern  to  most  of  our  state 
legislatures,  and  many  of  the  states  have  enacted  laws 
which  undertake  to  regulate  these  in  the  interests  of 
working  women.  The  real  question  of  a  living  wage, 
however,  is  little  understood  as  yet.  Miss  Louise  M. 
Bosworth,  in  191 1,  published  the  results  of  a  study 
of  the  problem  of  a  Living  Wage  of  Women  Workers. 
Miss  Bosworth  interviewed  450  women  of  Boston 
who  were  working  for  wages.     As  a  result  she  has 

147 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

made  the  following  estimate  of  annual  expenditures 
representing  a  living  wage  for  a  woman  who  must 
pay  room  rent  as  well  as  board : 

Food $169.70 

Rent 74.81 

Clothing    88.99 

Health 22.09 

Savings 31-63 

Miscellaneous 1 17.06 

Total  $504.28 

This  represents  an  average  of  $9.70  per  week  for  the 
full  52  weeks  of  a  year.  These  figures  today  would 
have  to  read  $1 1.50  to  $12  per  week  in  order  to  repre- 
sent the  same  purchasing  power.  But  even  this  amount 
may  not  be  a  living  wage.  It  all  depends  on  what 
should  be  the  essential  elements  of  living.  Merely  to 
exist  is  not  the  sum  of  any  human  life. 

The  problem  of  health  among  working  women  as 
affected  by  the  fatigue  of  overtime,  the  surroundings 
in  which  they  work,  and  even  the  nature  of  the  work 
they  do  are  also  matters  for  great  concern  on  the 
part  of  society.  This  involves  problems  of  sanitary 
shops  as  well  as  homes;  safety  and  preventative  meas- 
ures where  dust  or  unwholesome  fumes  are  to  be  in- 
haled ;  exposure  in  going  to  and  from  the  work.  When 
we  consider  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  young 

148 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

women  engaged  in  industries  are  to  become  mothers 
of  families  later  on  we  are  compelled  to  think  seri- 
ously of  these  matters  which  make  for  or  against 
their  health.  Yet  here,  as  in  so  many  industrial  af- 
fairs, the  mad  struggle  for  dividends  frequently  causes 
men  to  lose  sight  of  both  individual  and  social  needs. 
It  matters  little  as  long  as  added  cost  of  produc- 
tion caused  by  any  such  outlay  as  would  be  entailed 
by  remedying  evils  may  be  added  to  the  price  the  con- 
sumer pays.  But  when  competition  is  strong  or  an 
increase  in  selling  price  likely  to  become  prohibitive 
remedial  measures  are  possible  only  through  compul- 
sion from  the  governing  power.  In  such  a  case,  even, 
the  matter  sometimes  resolves  itself  into  the  question 
as  to  whether  the  remedy  or  control  of  the  governing 
power  would  be  the  more  expensive. 

The  lack  of  protective  influences  in  the  environment 
of  working  girls  is  well  calculated  to  increase  the 
dangers  to  their  moral  integrity.  Even  in  many  of 
the  homes  of  those  who  live  with  parents  or  other 
relatives  the  conditions  are  not  such  as  to  present  a 
sustaining  moral  atmosphere.  With  the  thousands 
who  live  alone  in  the  cities  the  situation  is  much 
worse.  Aside  from  the  temptations  and  allurements  on 
every  hand  and  the  longing  for  some  sort  of  social 
outlook  there  is  the  added  temptation  that  comes  where 
the  meager  pay  check  leaves  nothing  beyond  the  most 

149 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

urgent  necessities.  To  the  young  girl  in  the  bloom 
of  life  the  hunger  for  things  that  are  bright  and  at- 
tractive that  she  longs  to  add  to  her  all  too  limited 
wardrobe,  the  lure  of  the  street,  and  the  cheap  theater, 
gradually  weaken  and  break  down  one  moral  scruple 
after  another  until  she  has  taken  the  step  that  is  be- 
yond recall.  All  investigations  of  this  problem  show 
conclusively  that  low  wages  and  morals  are  very 
closely  related  in  the  lives  of  many  who  toil  in  re- 
tail stores  and  factories,  with  alternating  position  as 
between  cause  and  effect. 

Not  the  least  of  the  problems  of  women  in  indus- 
tries is  the  problem  of  the  unemployed,  a  problem 
shared  also  by  the  men.  When  lack  of  employment 
oomes  to  all  or  several  of  the  bread  winners  in  a 
family  the  situation  is  apt  to  be  grave,  indeed.  No 
less  serious  is  the  case  of  the  young  woman  who  boards 
and  who  has  been  working  for  a  wage  barely  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  food  and  rent.  To  such  employees 
the  loss  of  a  position,  the  shutting  down  of  an  indus- 
try, or  a  strike  comes  as  a  real  tragedy. 

But  the  problem  of  unemployment  is  not  limited  to 
the  poor  alone.  Olive  Schreiner  in  her  masterful  book 
on  * 'Woman  and  Labor''  has  given  a  very  vivid  pic- 
ture of  the  far-reaching  significance  of  the  rather  large 
group  of  middle  and  upper  class  women  and  girls  who 
are  almost  constantly  unemployed — the  female  para- 

150 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

sites  of  human  society.  Truly  their  condition,  as  it 
affects  society  in  general,  is  at  least  no  better  than 
that  of  the  poorest  among  the  working  girls. 

In  the  case  of  the  idle  well-to-do  and  rich  among 
womankind  the  loss  is  not  merely  that  which  their 
labor  might  produce.  It  marks  the  early  stages  of  a 
deadly  national  blight,  a  social  degeneracy,  which, 
if  not  checked,  must  mean  death  to  any  nation.  Mor- 
ally it  is  even  more  degrading  than  the  environment 
of  the  poor  toilers  of  our  cities.  For  these  social  idlers 
there  remains  nothing  but  reliance  upon  the  sexual 
function  alone.  The  gradations  as  Olive  Schreiner 
puts  them  are:  ,(i)  From  the  mighty  laboring  woman 
who  bears  human  creatures  to  the  full  extent  of  her 
power  and  rears  her  offspring  unaided  to  the  woman 
who  produces  offspring  freely  but  does  not  herself 
rear  them  or  perform  any  labor;  (2)  from  this  lat- 
ter to  the  woman  who  bears  few  or  no  children  and 
performs  no  productive  labor,  but  who,  as  wife  or 
mistress,  lives  by  the  exercise  of  her  sex  function 
alone;  (3)  from  this  to  the  prostitute  who  affects  no 
form  of  labor  and  in  place  of  producing  life  produces 
only  disease  and  death  while  existing  as  a  parasite 
through  her  sexual  attribute  alone. 

In  view  of  the  facts  in  the  case,  what  ought  society 
to  do  with  regard  to  the  situation  of  woman  as  related 
to  industry  ?    It  is  true  that  world-wide  war  conditions 

15^ 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

are  bringing  great  changes  to  the  industrial  situation 
as  it  affects  women.  By  the  student  who  beheves  in 
democracy  the  changes  that  are  thus  coming  about  are 
watched  with  keen  interest.  They  seem  to  portend  for 
the  future  a  fuller  realization  of  the  principles  of 
democracy  in  America,  and,  indeed,  throughout  the 
world.  Among  these  principles  are  fundamentally  the 
right  of  the  individual  to  *'life,  liberty,  and  the  pur- 
suit of  happiness."  But  such  a  state  of  society  as  this 
implies  can  never  be  realized  as  long  as  the  individual 
who  labors  is  subjected  to  the  same  economic  rule  of 
supply  and  demand  as  any  commodity  on  the  market. 
A  living  wage  must  be  the  measure  of  our  evaluation 
of  a  human  life  to  be  lived  in  a  democracy.  Such  a 
life  can  never  be  summed  up  in  terms  of  food,  cloth- 
ing and  shelter.  It  involves  a  sound  and  healthful 
body,  a  well  trained  mind,  a  stable  morality,  opportu- 
nity for  aesthetic  appreciation,  and  a  chance  to  pro- 
vide for  sickness  and  old  age. 

We  have  been  too  long  content  to  apply  the  com- 
modity idea,  a  relic  of  human  slavery,  and  to  permit 
capital  and  the  promoter  of  industry  to  take  all  that 
remained  over  and  above  the  "keep"  of  the  laborer 
from  the  fruits  of  his  toil.  If  there  is  to  be  any 
preference  in  this  it  should  be  the  laborer  rather  than 
capital.  But  undoubtedly  there  will  usually  be  a  fair 
compensation   for  both  labor  and  capital  if  once  a 

152 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

basis  is  found  for  a  more  equitable  division  of  profits 
produced  by  labor. 

In  the  case  of  the  woman  as  related  to  industry  it 
would  seem  that  with  the  great  readjustment  with  re- 
gard to  the  industries  which  have  been  transferred 
from  the  home  in  the  interests  of  society  in  general, 
as  it  is  supposed,  it  should  be  the  first  care  of  society 
to  remedy  the  situation  in  so  far  as  it  affects  injuri- 
ously or  negatively  the  lives  of  women.  This  would 
mean,  in  the  first  place,  the  preparation  of  women, 
through  education,  for  the  doing  of  a  larger  number 
of  modified  tasks  coming  within  her  capabilities.  This 
would  involve  not  alone  the  education  of  girls,  but 
provision  also  for  those  past  the  school  age  still  found 
to  be  capable  of  such  readjustments  through  educa- 
tion. Incidentally,  also,  it  would  necessitate  the  re- 
quirement that  all  girls,  regardless  of  family  traditions, 
should  be  educated  away  from  parasitism. 

In  all  these  matters  of  education  promoters  of  bus- 
iness and  industries  have  withheld  too  much  of  their 
net  earnings  from  the  educational  budget  of  the  state 
and  nation.  If  any  one  will  stop  to  estimate  the  part 
that  increased  intelligence  due  to  the  work  of  the 
schools  has  had  to  do  with  the  improvement  and  in- 
crease in  the  use  of  the  raw  material  products  of 
labor  they  will  readily  see  that  education  as  a  factor 
of  such  production  has  not  received  its  fair  portion. 

153 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Yet  that  would  be  an  essential  factor  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  accounting  for  the  net  earnings  of  any  given 
industry. 

Likewise,  also,  other  factors,  such  as  those  insti- 
tutions and  individual  efforts  which  make  for  higher 
standards  of  honesty  and  morality,  and  the  means  for 
wholesome  recreation,  all  essential  to  the  highest  de- 
gree of  industrial  efficiency,  do  not  as  a  rule  receive 
in  return  their  share  of  the  net  proceeds  of  industry. 

Thus  these  factors  are  not  able  to  do  for  the 
workers  all  those  things  which  need  to  be  done  if 
society  is  fully  to  offset  the  situation  caused  by  the 
robbing  of  the  home  of  so  much  of  its  significance  as 
regards  the  education  of  girls.  We  are  in  need  of  a 
broader  interpretation  of  economic  factors  that  are 
effective  in  the  production  of  wealth.  We  need  a 
socialized  system  that  shall  make  returns  where  they 
are  due  according  to  the  new  order  of  things  which 
has  resulted  from  the  great  revolution  of  the  past 
century  or  two  in  the  fields  of  productive  occupations. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  how  otherwise  to  readjust  the 
compensations  for  service  as  they  affect  women.  It 
would  seem  that,  as  yet,  not  all  the  stock-holders  in 
the  great  concern  that  supplies  human  necessities  are 
permitted  to  "sit  in"  at  the  dividing  of  the  profits,  nor 
is  all  the  stock  counted  as  preferred  that  belongs  in 
that  list. 

154 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

It  is  only  fair  to  assume  that  in  some  way  the  ag- 
gregated use  of  labor  that  has  been  transferred  from 
the  home  to  the  shop  and  factory  should  be  made  to 
compensate  to  the  home,  either  directly  or  indirectly, 
all  that  is  lost  to  the  family  life  and  solidarity.  Prob- 
ably this  could  be  done  in  no  more  effective  way  than 
by  deducting  from  the  profits  of  such  industries  a 
larger  percentage  for  the  providing  of  good  health 
conditions,  better  educational  facilities,  and  more  ex- 
tensive and  well  regulated  means  for  recreation.  The 
making  and  maintaining  of  such  provisions  along  with 
the  establishment  of  a  fairer  wage  distribution  and  a 
maximum  working  day  should  ultimately  produce  in 
every  community  a  better  industrial  situation  through 
the  higher  intelligence  of  the  workers.  More  im- 
portant still,  there  would  inevitably  result  a  higher 
standard  of  living  in  the  true  sense,  and  a  much  bet- 
ter citizenship. 

To  all  this  there  are  those  who  will  say  that  edu- 
cation robs  the  lower  levels  of  labor  of  workers;  that 
girls  who  go  through  high  school  are  no  longer  fit 
for  any  ordinary  service.  The  answer  to  this  is  that 
the  cause  is  not  the  education  of  the  girls  but  the 
degradation  of  certain  forms  of  so  called  common 
labor  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  "Menial  labor"  is 
a  phrase  which  we  have  derived  from  slavery  condi- 
tions.    It  should  have  no  place  in  the  minds  of  the 

155 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

people  of  a  democracy.  The  work  of  the  kitchen  is  no 
more  "degrading"  than  the  operating  room  of  the 
surgeon  except  in  the  minds  of  the  people  who  look 
upon  it  as  such.  Further,  there  is  just  as  much  op- 
portunity to  apply  intelligence  and  a  knowledge  of 
science  to  the  doing  of  kitchen  work  as  to  any  other 
service  if  the  individual  has  the  knowledge  to  apply 
and  the  will  and  the  freedom  to  apply  it. 

There  is  in  this  whole  situation  a  great  problem  to 
be  solved.  There  is  the  deadening  effect  of  the  monot- 
ony of  the  factory  operative  whose  time  is  spent  in 
making  a  few  adjustments  in  machine  work.  But 
the  big  problem  is  to  get  out  of  the  minds  of  all 
classes  of  people,  rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  the 
idea  that  "common*'  labor  is  degrading.  It  is  de- 
grading only  when  it  is  performed  in  a  very  "common" 
way  as  though  its  painstaking  accomplishment  were 
not  worth  while  and  the  slighting  of  it  of  no  concern 
either  to  the  doer  or  to  others.  All  this,  whether  ap- 
plied to  girls  or  boys,  is  one  of  the  most  profound 
problems  for  our  system  of  public  education. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Study  the  effect  on  earnings  and  wages  of  men  caused 
by  the  larger  entrance  of  women  into  the  various  in- 
dustries. 

156 


WOMAN  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  WORKER 

Consider  the  question  of  what  constitutes  a  living  wage 

when  all  human  necessities  in  a  free  democracy  are 

considered. 
A  study  of  morality  among  working  girls  as  compared 

with  other  classes;  also  of  the  effect  on  morals  of 

suitable  provision  and  regulation  of  recreation  for 

working  girls. 
Study  and  discuss  the  facts  as  to  Olive  Schreiner's  three 

classes  of  women  of  leisure  (p.  151). 
Investigate  the  influence  of  education  on  the  working  girl 

and  young  woman. 

References 

Abbott,  Edith.  "Women  in  Industry."  New  York,  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  1910. 

Anthony,  Katharine  S.  "Mothers  Who  Must  Earn."  N. 
Y.  Survey  Associates. 

Barnes,  Earl.  "New  Professions  for  Women."  Atlantic, 
116:225-34. 

Bosworth,  Marion  L.  "Living  Wage  of  Women  Work- 
ers." Supplement  to  Annals  of  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science.    May,  191 1. 

Deland,  Margaret.  "Women  in  the  Market  Place."  In- 
dependent, 86:286-88. 

Devine,  Edward  T.  "The  Economic  Function  of  Wom- 
an." Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science.    Philadelphia,  1894. 

Eaton,  Jeannette.  "Commercial  Work  and  Training  for 
Girls."     New  York,  Macmillans,  19 15. 

Oilman,  Mrs.  "Women  and  Economics."  Boston,  Small, 
Maynard  &  Co.,  19CX3. 

"Women  Shareholders  in  Corporations."  Literary  Dir- 
gest,  48:348. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE  OF  WOMEN 

The  enactment  of  laws  by  legislatures  fixing  a 
maximum  working  day  and  a  minimum  wage  may 
give  temporary  relief  where  it  is  most  urgently  needed. 
But  such  legislation  will  not  solve  the  industrial  prob- 
lem for  women.  The  causes  of  the  conditions  which 
we  see  lie  deeper,  and  to  change  the  situation  percep- 
tibly we  must  find  ways  to  get  at  these  causes.  Olive 
Schreiner  expressed  a  bit  of  profound  philosophy 
when  she  said:  "Free  trade  in  labor  and  equality  of 
training,  intellectual  or  physical,  is  essential  if  the 
organic  aptitudes  of  a  sex  or  class  are  to  be  deter- 
mined. And  our  demand  today  is  that  natural  con- 
ditions, inexorably,  but  beneficently,  may  determine 
the  labors  of  each  individual,  and  not  artificial  re- 
strictions." Among  these  natural  conditions  will  be 
included  all  the  factors  which  contribute,  through  in- 
dustry, to  the  production  of  wealth.  And  shall  we 
not  say,  also,  a  restoration  of  some  essential  features 
of  that  primitive  state  for  women  by  which  they  shall 
all  find  both  pleasure  and  strength  in  work? 

158 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

There  is  perhaps  no  more  fundamental  need  in  this 
present  social  situation  than  the  elimination  by  woman- 
kind of  all  exploitation  of  sex  as  a  basis  for  rights  or 
privileges  in  the  industrial  world,  a  means  of  escape 
from  work,  or  the  gratification  of  social  ambition  or 
a  love  of  luxury.  And  this  is  no  simple  task.  It 
means,  in  a  very  peculiar  sense,  that  here  the  education 
of  the  children  must  wait  for  the  education  of  the 
parents.  Not  infrequently  does  it  happen  that  such  an 
attitude  of  dependence  upon  sex  is  fostered,  yes  en- 
forced, by  mothers  more  sordidly  anxious  than  wise, 
while  their  daughters  instinctively  rebel  against  it. 

It  is  doubtless  true,  as  Mrs.  Colquhoun  puts  it,  *'that 
Nature  has  laid  upon  women  the  obligation  of  win- 
ning man  and  of  giving  herself  in  the  interests  of  the 
race.  In  its  lowest  form  her  instinct  may  lead  to 
nothing  more  than  sex-education;  in  its  highest  it  is 
the  root  not  only  of  the  gentle  dependence  on  man  and 
desire  for  his  love  and  protection,  which  have  always 
been  conventionally  feminine  attributes,  but  of  that 
power  of  self-realization  through  self-abnegation  and 
devotion  which  are  indissolubly  bound  up  with  human 
motherhood  and  with  the  progress  of  society  from  its 
rude  inchoate  state  up  to  a  highly  organized  one  with 
ethical  conceptions."^     But  it  does  not  follow  from 

*  Mrs.  Archibald  Colquhoun,  "The  Vocation  of  Woman,"  p.  55- 
London,  Macmillans,  1913. 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

this  that  woman  should  devote  all  her  resources  to 
"winning  man." 

It  is  only  through  education  in  the  home  and  in  the 
school,  and  through  organized  effort  of  women  in 
all  communities,  that  the  abnormal  conception  that 
has  grown  up  about  marriage  making  it  the  ne  plus 
ultra  of  woman's  social  existence  can  ever  be  expected 
to  yield  to  an  attitude  more  sane  and  wholesome. 
There  is  needed  also  that  sort  of  public  opinion  among 
women  which  will  come  as  there  are  in  the  social  group 
larger  and  still  increasing  numbers  of  women  who 
are  economically  independent.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
hopeful  signs  of  the  times  that  the  number  of  women 
who  have  won  such  independence  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing, and  that  thinking  women  everywhere  are  thor- 
oughly awake  to  the  needs  of  the  situation. 

According  to  the  Wall  Street  Journal  out  of  252 
corporations  there  were,  in  19 14,  310,000  women 
stockholders  of  whom  130,000  held  shares  in  railroads 
and  180,000  in  industrial  concerns.  Women  were  re- 
ported as  extensive  shareholders  in  161  industrial, 
public  utility,  and  miscellaneous  corporations.  On  Jan- 
uary 1st,  1 914,  they  constituted  48  per  cent  of  the 
stockholders  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  The  in- 
crease from  1912  to  1913  in  women  shareholders  of 
stock  in  28  railroads  was  from  19,219  to  29,730  or  an 
increase  of  54.7  per  cent.     This  is  only  in  a  partial 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

sense  an  indication  of  real  advancement  in  economic 
independence;  but  it  is  enough  to  show  what  women 
are  thinking  as  to  matters  financial. 

Woman  is  certainly  getting  into  the  market  places 
of  the  world.  Margaret  Deland  says  of  her  in  this 
connection:  "The  spirit  of  service — without  which  a 
home  is  nothing  but  a  house! — is  just  as  consecrated 
in  the  Market  Place  where  she  supports  a  home  in 
which  she  herself  dwells  only  when  her  working  hours 
are  over,  as  it  ever  was  when  Adam  delved  and  Eve 
span."^  And  why  should  this  not  be  true  ?  If  women, 
in  the  old  days,  could  rear  their  children,  keep  their 
houses  in  order,  and  at  the  same  time  spin  and  weave 
and  knit  for  the  family,  now  that  they  are  relieved 
of  much  of  the  home  labor,  why  should  they  not  find 
time  to  serve  in  the  market  place  or  in  some  other  in- 
dependent capacity? 

There  are  many  hopeful  signs  that  such  a  readjust- 
ment for  service  may  yet  be  realized.  In  fact,  most 
of  the  occupations  hitherto  followed  by  men  almost 
exclusively  are  now  being  entered  by  women.  We 
have,  for  instance,  a  National  Agricultural  and  Hor- 
ticultural Association  for  women.  This  organization 
includes  gardeners  and  landscape  architects;  women 
who  keep  apiaries  and  poultry  farms;  those  who  are 

'"Woman  in  the  Market  Place,"  Margaret  Deland     Indepen- 
dent, 86:286-a 

l6l 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

engaged  in  stock  raising  and  dairying,  and  some  who 
are  interested  in  general  farming  or  fruit  growing. 
Many  of  these  women  are,  of  course,  interested  in 
these  matters  as  avocations ;  but  there  are  many  others 
who  follow  such  pursuits  successfully  as  a  means  of 
subsistence  and  because  they  enjoy  the  work.  One 
frequently  sees  references  to  such  enterprises  con- 
ducted by  women.  R.  H.  Moulton  tells  in  the  Crafts- 
man^  of  an  English  woman  at  Thatcham,  Berkshire, 
England,  who  engaged  in  intensive  farming,  and  who, 
with  several  girls  employed  as  helpers,  was  able  to  get 
off  from  two  acres  of  ground,  over  and  above  up-keep, 
running  expenses  and  equipment,  a  good  living  with 
some  leisure  and  a  bank  account. 

There  are  many  housewives  on  farms  who  add  ma- 
terially to  the  annual  income  of  the  family  by  the  rais- 
ing of  poultry  or  bees,  or  the  keeping  of  a  good  vege- 
table garden.  In  many  cases  they  earn  enough  in  this 
way  to  establish  by  this  work  alone,  entirely  aside 
from  regular  household  duties,  their  economic  in- 
dependence in  the  home.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  the 
farmer's  wife  and  daughter  have  a  much  better  op- 
portunity to  establish  themselves  on  such  an  indepen- 
dent financial  basis  than  most  of  their  city  sisters. 
Yet  to  those  of  the  latter  group  who  will  there  may 

""Intensive  Farming  for  Women,"  R.   H.  Moulton.    Crafts- 
man, 2S '.$10-12. 

162 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

be  either  a  commercial  venture,  art  work  in  some 
form,  or  a  professional  career. 

The  fine  thing  about  this  is  that  in  such  cases  there 
is  no  such  thing  possible  as  parasitism.  The  women 
are,  by  such  means,  made  free  and  independent,  as  be- 
comes the  women  of  a  democracy ;  and  they  still  have 
time  for  companionship  of  their  husbands  and  chil- 
dren. Think  of  the  difference  in  the  moral  atmos- 
phere of  such  a  home  as  compared  with  one  in  which 
the  wife  and  mother  stands  as  a  living  example  to 
her  daughters  of  the  ideal  of  a  life  for  women  spent 
in  comparative  ease  and  idleness. 

Another  important  consideration  in  this  movement 
toward  agricultural  and  allied  pursuits  by  women  is 
the  fact  that  one  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  world 
today  is  increased  production  of  food  stuffs.  The  ten- 
dency has  been  too  strongly  away  from  the  productive 
industries  to  occupations  in  cities  erroneously  consid- 
ered more  genteel.  This  has  been  true  of  men  espe- 
cially. There  is  a  fine  field  open,  therefore,  for  women 
who  prefer  to  live  in  the  open,  and  there  is  no  better 
place  for  the  realization  of  complete  economic  inde- 
pendence than  a  small  farm  of  a  few  acres  intensively 
cultivated  or  as  a  base  for  the  production  of  poultry, 
honey  or  fruit  taken  either  singly  or  together. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  a  woman  can  do  in  this 
field  of  endeavor  we  have  the  charming  story  by  Pa- 

163 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tience  Pennington  of  how  she  took  over  the  old  home- 
stead, a  rice  plantation  in  South  Carolina,  managed  it 
alone,  paying  off  a  mortgage  of  $3,000  and  making 
altogether  a  success  of  it.  There  is  hardly  any  type 
of  agricultural  enterprise  which  some  woman  has  not 
experimented  with  successfully.  It  may  well  be  ex- 
pected that  in  the  years  to  follow  this  great  world 
conflict  in  the  midst  of  which  we  now  are  many  women 
will  find  congenial  occupations  in  the  great  agricul- 
tural districts  of  America. 

In  commercial  affairs  as  well  as  in  agricultural 
women  are  finding  daily  new  opportunities.  In  the 
preceding  chapter  reference  has  been  made  to  the  large 
numbers  of  young  women  engaged  as  saleswomen 
in  the  great  city  retail  estabhshments.  There  are  vari- 
ous oppK>rtunities  in  these  institutions  for  women  of 
ability  to  advance  to  positions  which  pay  well  for 
superior  service.  The  great  point  here  as  every- 
where is  that  the  young  women  have  sufficient  train- 
ing in  preparation  for  the  work  they  undertake  to  do, 
and  that  they  enter  into  it  with  that  interest  and  spirit 
always  essential  to  success.  The  young  woman  in 
any  business  position  who  accepts  it  only  as  a  make- 
shift until  she  has  an  opportunity  to  marry,  must  ex- 
pect no  great  advancement  in  position  or  pay.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  one  who  selects  a  business  calling  to 
which  she  is  adapted  and  does  her  work  feeling  that  it 

164 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

is  both  an  opportunity  and  a  service  will,  other  things 
equal,  succeed  in  her  work,  and  that  with  no  less 
likelihood  of  an  opportunity  for  marriage.  The  dif- 
ference is  that  the  latter  will  always  be  in  a  position  to 
choose  while  the  former  will  find  herself  practically 
compelled  to  accept  wedlock  regardless  of  the  lack 
of  any  real  affinity  in  the  case,  if  indeed  she  does  not 
sacrifice  her  womanly  integrity  in  an  insane  desire  to 
marry. 

As  it  is  with  saleswomen  so  it  is  also  with  steno- 
graphic and  clerical  work,  with  telephone  and  tele- 
graph operators,  and  with  numerous  other  fields  into 
which  girls  may  enter  with  little  or  no  capital  in- 
vested if  good  use  has  been  made  of  the  opportunities 
ofifered  in  the  high  school  at  home.  In  all  of  these 
lines  there  is  opportunity  for  advancement  to  posi- 
tions carrying  sufficient  compensation  to  insure  eco- 
nomic independence. 

Still  more  interesting  for  the  outlook  of  the  young 
American  woman  today  are  those  opportunities  to 
find  a  way,  through  saving  for  a  few  years,  into  a 
real  business  career  where  she  may  apply  all  her 
energy  and  talent  independently.  For  the  one  who  has 
developed  a  real  talent  for  salesmanship  and  who  has 
accumulated  a  modest  capital  this  may  mean  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  place  in  some  field  of  merchandising. 
Many  women  have  succeeded  as  jewelers,  a  business 

165 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

for  which  they  often  have  an  inherent  liking.  Others 
have  preferred  millinery  and  ladies*  gowns,  along  with 
other  fineries  that  well  dressed  women  must  have. 
Then  again  we  find  women  succeeding  in  gift  shops 
of  a  general  character,  or  in  operating  book  and  sta- 
tionery shops.  Along  quite  a  different  line,  but  cater- 
ing to  a  large  public  demand  under  present  day  con- 
ditions, are  bakeries  and  confectionery  shops  owned 
and  managed  by  women. 

Another  class  of  business  more  or  less  directly  al- 
lied to  general  trade  and  industry  are  advertisement 
writing  for  which  some  women  show  great  talent; 
or  the  dressing  of  store  windows  for  display  of  mer- 
chandise; or  as  professional  shoppers  undertaking  to 
buy  for  their  clients  what  women  of  wealth  or  those 
busy  with  affairs  of  their  own  would  rather  pay  for 
than  take  the  time  and  trouble  of  doing  for  themselves. 
Frequently  this  gives  opportunity  for  the  employment 
of  taste  and  judgment  that  may  be  lacking  in  the 
client;  and  in  some  instances,  at  least,  merchants  are 
quite  willing  to  stand  the  cost  of  the  shopper's  com- 
mission. 

In  the  fields  of  journalism  and  book  publishing  there 
are  also  some  fine  opportunities  for  those  qualified. 
Many  proof-readers  are  needed  in  both  these  fields. 
Then  there  are  society  editors  in  journalism  as  well 
as  designers  and  operatives  in  book-binderies. 

i66 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

In  hotel  and  boarding  house  service  women  have 
frequently  found  opportunity  for  using  to  great  ad- 
vantage the  skill  and  experience  acquired  in  housekeep- 
ing. Most  of  the  boarding  houses  of  the  country  as 
well  as  many  of  the  restaurants,  cafes  and  cafeterias 
are  owned  and  operated  by  women. 

Another  mteresting  group  of  occupations  in  which 
women  have  found  independence  in  a  business  sense 
is  that  of  various  agencies,  such  as  labor  employment 
bureaus,  life  insurance,  and  teachers'  agencies.  It  is 
said  that  in  selling  life  insurance  to  those  of  their  own 
sex  women  are  very  successful.  They  imderstand 
best  how  to  approach  women  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  interests  tney  may  have  in  making  such  a  provi- 
sion for  the  future  of  themselves  and  others.  In  our 
cities  the  labor  employment  agency  is  commonly  re- 
sorted to  by  housewives  and  keepers  of  hotels  and 
public  eating  places  when  in  urgent  need  of  service. 
And  in  this  capacity  the  woman  is  again  very  much  at 
home.  The  same  is  also  true  of  teachers'  agencies  of 
which  quite  a  number  are  successfully  operated  by 
women. 

Thus  the  survey  of  the  business  field  with  reference 
to  woman's  occupations  might  go  on  through  a  very 
extensive  list  of  enterprises  commercial  or  semi-com- 
mercial in  character.  One  very  interesting  develop- 
ment in  this  connection  was  noted  through  a  series  of 

167 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

articles  published  in  the  New  York  Tribune  in  1898 
and  afterward  included,  with  some  additional  articles, 
in  a  volume  on  "What  Women  Can  Earn"  published 
by  the  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company  in  1899.  Among 
these  articles  was  a  series  headed  "Society  Women  in 
Business"  in  which  are  given  the  experiences  of  sev- 
eral New  York  women  who,  for  one  reason  or  another, 
entered  into  business  for  themselves.  The  chief  in- 
terest that  appears  in  this  connection  is  in  the  fact 
that  in  several  instances  young  women  of  leisure 
found  it  desirable  to  undertake  such  business  ven- 
tures. 

The  world,  and  America  especially,  is  greatly  in 
need  of  such  examples  of  thrift  and  of  service  as  the 
business  efforts  of  these  young  women  represent.  We 
need  more  Helen  Goulds  as  well.  But  the  real  "uplift'* 
would  come  for  working  women  if  all  the  daughters 
of  wealth  would  engage  in  some  productive  labor  as 
their  personal  service  to  society.  In  the  industrial 
field,  in  business,  in  domestic  service,  the  greatest 
drawback  is  the  degradation  into  which  such  common, 
necessary  service  has  fallen.  The  best  way  to  be  a 
successful  "uplifter"  is  to  do  something  to  help  dig- 
nify labor.  If  once  the  dignity  of  woman's  work  were 
established,  and  a  better  educational  system  for  girls 
provided,  many  of  the  difficulties  that  beset  our  army 
of  working  girls  would  disappear. 

168 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

The  leading  professions  are  today  inviting  women  as 
never  before.  From  primitive  times  they  have  been  in- 
terested in  the  ministry  of  medicine.  All  along  through 
ancient  times  and  later  the  woman  physician  was  a 
recognized  and  important  factor  in  the  treatment  of  hu- 
man ailments.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  however,  the 
male  physicians  of  Europe  organized  against  women  in 
the  profession,  and  for  several  centuries  women  as 
physicians  were  hardly  known.  Then  with  the  new 
life  of  medicine  which  came  with  the  revelations  fur- 
nished through  the  application  of  science,  women  have 
gradually  been  returning  to  this  field.  For  a  time  the 
medical  missionary  service  made  a  strong  appeal  to 
young  women  who  were  desirous  of  serving  the 
church.  Now  we  find  the  number  of  woman  physi- 
cians in  regular  practice  rapidly  increasing  in  both 
Europe  and  America.  Those  European  countries 
which,  a  decade  ago,  generally  frowned  upon  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  by  women  are  now  sincerely  regret- 
ting that  there  are  not  more  women  qualified  as  physi- 
cians to  serve  the  civil  population  which,  on  account 
of  war  demands,  has  been  very  largely  deprived  of 
the  services  of  men  In  this  profession. 

Still  there  is  more  or  less  of  popular  disapproval 
as  well  as  opposition  by  the  male  members  of  the 
profession  which  women  who  undertake  to  practice 
medicine  must  meet  and  combat  if  they  wish  to  suc- 

169 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ceed.  Naturally  any  new  cult,  like  osteopathy  or  that 
of  the  chiropracter  attracts  women,  for  here  they  do 
not  have  the  same  opposition  to  contend  with. 

In  the  realm  of  the  trained  nurse,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  women  lead.  Here  is  a  very  useful  service  where 
good,  thorough  preparation  and  a  liking  and  aptitude 
for  the  work  will  bring  independence,  economically,  to 
the  woman  who  accepts  it  as  a  calling.  Indeed  the 
work  of  the  modern  physician  and  surgeon  is  very 
definitely  dependent  upon  good  nursing.  Just  at  pres- 
ent, with  the  necessary  expansion  of  the  Red  Cross 
service  there  is  a  great  demand  for  trained  nurses,  a 
demand  which  is  likely  to  continue  indefinitely. 

Dentistry,  also,  is  open  to  women,  although  it  does 
not  seem  to  attract  as  many  as  do  the  medical  profes- 
sion and  nursing.  This  is  a  profession  peculiarly  suited 
to  women.  It  offers  a  fine  field  for  very  useful  serv- 
ice. And  it  possesses  this  additional  feature  that  it 
may  be  practiced  with  the  home  as  an  office.  Thus  it 
may  become  a  means  by  which  any  woman  properly 
trained  for  the  work  may  both  keep  her  home  in  order 
and  earn  her  way  in  life. 

The  legal  profession  in  its  ideals  makes  a  strong 
appeal  to  women,  but  in  its  practice  it  is  repellent  to 
most  feminine  natures.  Some  writer  has  said  that 
"not  until  the  legal  profession  is  devoted  to  determin- 
ing a  just  interpretation  of  law  and  its  application  to 

170 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

human  interests  for  the  estabhshment  of  human  rights 
will  women  enter  extensively  into  the  practice  of  law." 
No  doubt  many  men  could  be  found  who  have  been 
deterred  from  the  actual  practice  of  law  on  account 
of  similar  scruples  against  participating  in  a  situation 
such  as  the  statement  above  quoted  implies.  Never- 
theless, as  the  census  for  1910  shows,  there  were  at 
that  time  over  550  women  in  this  country  engaged  in 
legal  pursuits.  If  it  is  true  that  women  would  bring 
to  the  profession  a  more  conscientious  and  patriotic 
attitude  with  regard  to  human  rights  as  affected  by 
law,  let  us  hope  that  many  more  of  their  number  may 
soon  enter  it.  The  writer  remembers  well  the  disillu- 
sionment of  his  closest  college  friend  when  the  latter 
first  entered  into  the  actual  practice  of  law.  A  man  of 
the  loftiest  ideals  and  sense  of  honor,  this  friend  had 
pursued  the  study  of  the  law  with  delight.  The  ideals 
of  justice  and  equity  which  were  constantly  held  be- 
fore the  students  in  the  university  law  school  appealed 
to  him.  But  when  he  came  to  the  realities  as  they  ap- 
peared in  a  small,  middle-west  city,  he  was  sadly  dis- 
appointed to  find  that  the  practice  of  law  was  so  often 
far  removed  from  the  ideals  of  the  lecture  room. 

Just  now,  when  the  attendance  of  men  at  law  schools 
is  at  a  low  ebb,  there  is  an  opportune  time  for  young 
women  who  have  a  taste  for  the  kind  of  service  the 
law  has  to  offer  to  win  for  womanhood  a  recognized 

171 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

place  in  this  really  great  profession  which  has  given  to 
our  country  so  many  able  statesmen  and  diplomats. 
Even  if  they  do  not  wish  to  enter  the  field  of  legal 
practice,  a  knowledge  of  the  law  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  attainments  in  any  walk  of  life  which  young 
women  could  have.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  in- 
terests of  her  own  sex  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 
legal  status  of  women.  And  if  women  are  to  enter 
extensively  into  politics,  as  now  seems  very  probable, 
they  will  need  not  a  few  of  their  number  who  may  be 
capable  of  coping  with  men  in  framing  laws  that  af- 
fect the  interests  of  women.  Further,  there  are  fields 
of  legal  work  aside  from  practice  in  the  courts  for 
which  women  are  amply  qualified;  such,  for  instance, 
as  the  soliciting  of  patents. 

It  would  seem  that  the  ministry  would  naturally  ap- 
peal to  women;  and  indeed,  this  has  been  true  in 
every  aspect  of  the  Christian  ministry  from  the  be- 
ginning except  in  the  pulpit  service.  The  function 
of  preaching  was  long  held  by  the  Church  as  belong- 
ing peculiarly  to  man.  But  from  this  there  has  been  a 
decided  breaking  away  among  some  denominations. 
The  Friends,  Congregationalists  and  Universalists 
seem  to  have  been  most  liberal  in  recognizing  woman's 
fitness  and  right  to  serve  society  and  the  churches  in 
this  capacity. 

On  the  lecture  platform  there  are  many  women 
172 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

who  have  won  a  large  place  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
public  today.  In  this  there  has  been  quite  an  advance 
in  the  last  three-quarters  of  a  century.  We  are  told 
that  when  Miss  Lucy  Stone  was  announced  to  speak 
on  anti-slavery  at  Maiden,  Massachusetts,  in  1847,  the 
announcement  read  as  follows:  "I  am  requested  by 
Mr.  Mowey  to  say  that  a  hen  will  undertake  to  crow 
like  a  cock  at  the  Town  Hall  this  afternoon  at  five 
o^clock.  Anybody  that  wants  to  hear  that  kind  of 
music  will,  of  course,  attend."  When  Miss  Stone  died 
in  1893  the  Boston  Herald  said:  "She  goes  to  her 
grave  honored,  beloved  and  mourned  by  the  whole 
American  people." 

The  woman  movement  in  this  country  has  done 
much  toward  developing  oratory  and  forensic  ability 
among  its  followers.  The  influence  of  this  movement 
is  seen  also  in  the  field  of  journalism.  It  has  served 
to  bring  women  before  the  public  in  the  columns  of 
the  daily  press  as  well  as  in  magazine  literature.  In 
fact  women  have  shown  ability  to  occupy  almost  any 
field  of  journalism  that  men  have  occupied;  and  there 
are  some  fields  peculiarly  their  own.  Among  these 
are  the  society  editor  of  the  city  daily,  fashion  re- 
viewers, as  well  as  those  who  write  much  of  our 
everyday  literary  and  art  criticism. 

More  than  three-fourths  of  the  librarians  and  li- 
brary assistants  of  this  country  are  women.    Still  the 

173 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

demand  exceeds  the  supply.  And  certainly  the  library, 
with  its  rapid  development  everywhere  apparent,  of- 
fers a  great  and  congenial  field  for  young  women. 
There  are  always  most  delightful  associations  with 
books  even  in  the  dullest  of  social  environments.  It  is 
true  that  the  work  is  exacting  and  calls  for  thorough 
training;  but  the  compensations  are  well  worth  the 
effort  required  to  prepare  properly  for  the  service. 

Of  all  professions  for  women,  however,  that  of 
teaching  calls  the  most.  By  the  census  of  1910  there 
were  478,027  women  teachers  in  the  United  States  not 
including  teachers  of  music  and  of  art  of  which  there 
were  many  thousands  more.  Here  women  are  found 
in  numbers  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  college,  but 
always,  as  might  be  supposed,  in  diminishing  numbers 
as  the  grade  of  work  advances.  They  are  to  be  seen 
occupying  all  grades  of  administrative  positions :  prin- 
cipals ;  special  supervisors ;  city,  county  and  state  super- 
intendents; college  presidents  and  dean§.  In  educa- 
tion women  will  undoubtedly  always  hold  a  conspicu- 
ous place,  for  they  are  especially  well  adapted  to  the 
work  of  instructing  the  young.  Outside  of  mother- 
hood and  homebuilding  it  is  the  only  place  that  is  tra- 
ditionally theirs  from  the  earliest  times. 

When  we  consider  all  the  professions  together,  in- 
cluding several  not  named  in  the  preceding  survey, 
the  number  of  women  as  compared  with  the  number  of 

174 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

wage  earners  is  very  small.  The  professions  show  a 
total  in  19 lo  of  only  733,885  as  against  7,608,000  fe- 
male wage  earners.  Woman's  progress  towards  eco- 
nomic independence  should  show  a  distinct  increase  in 
the  number  of  those  pursuing  professional  careers. 

Nothing  much  has  been  said,  as  yet,  of  woman  in 
the  home  as  wife  or  mother.  What  of  her  indepen- 
dence from  an  economic  standpoint  ?  How  are  we  to 
estimate  the  economic  relation  of  the  woman  who 
bears  children,  rears  and  partially  educates  them,  keeps 
the  home  in  order,  and  to  her  numerous  household 
duties  adds  the  rare  accomplishment  of  being  a  com- 
panion, adviser  and  comforter  to  her  husband?  This 
is  the  status  of  many  thousands  of  American  women. 
There  is  some  truth  in  the  statement  of  a  writer  for 
one  of  our  leading  magazines  when  she  says:  "A  man^ 
is  usually  more  willing  to  pay  a  woman  outside  his 
family  money  which  he  is  sure  she  does  not  earn  than 
to  pay  to  the  women  folk  of  his  own  family  the  money 
he  knows  they  earn." 

The  partnership  of  married  life,  and  especially  of 
parenthood,  cannot  be  rated  in  Dun's,  yet  it  repre- 
sents values  far  beyond  that  of  the  capital  stock  of 
the  great  corporations.  Motherhood  itself  can  bear 
no  relationship  to  woman's  economic  status.  No  mat- 
ter what  may  be  the  income  from  the  industry  or  pro- 
fession of  the  man,  the  woman  who  bears  his  children, 

175 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

rears  them,  and  keeps  his  home  in  order  has  earned 
a  right  to  her  full  half  of  it,  to  say  the  least.  The 
only  solution  of  the  problem  in  such  a  case  is  a  com- 
mon privilege  in  the  use  of  the  check  book  within  the 
limits  of  banking  rules  as  to  reserves  and  overdrafts. 

How,  then,  shall  we  define  the  economic  indepen- 
dence of  women  ?  For  unmarried  women  with  no  de- 
pendents it  should  mean  enough  to  live  well,  though 
simply,  to  provide  herself  with  books  and  other  essen- 
tial means  of  maintaining  an  intelligent  relationship 
to  society,  and  to  make  provision  for  sickness  or  the 
incapacity  of  old  age.  For  the  young  woman  in  the 
home  of  parents  or  relatives  a  sufficient  contribution 
in  home  labor  or  in  earnings  or  both  to  equal  the 
amount  involved  in  the  first  case.  For  the  married 
woman  without  children  the  contribution  of  an  equiv- 
alent amount  in  labor  or  earnings,  one  or  both.  For 
the  wife  and  mother  who  rears  her  children,  keeps  the 
home,  and  aids  and  comforts  her  husband  it  should  be 
"share  and  share  alike"  as  between  the  two  when  the 
living,  clothing  and  education  of  the  children  has  been 
provided  for.  The  generous  husband  thus  arranges 
matters  voluntarily.  Should  not  society  give  the  pro- 
tection of  the  law  to  women  whose  husbands  neglect 
or  refuse  to  do  so? 

The  way  to  such  economic  independence  requires  a 
serious  outlook  on  life  with  an  appreciation  of  its  op- 

176 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

portunities  and  responsibilities,  and  an  education  at 
least  as  good  as  may  be  had  in  a  completely  organized 
and  well  managed  modern  high  school. 

The  writer  is  not  unconscious  of  the  fact  that  to 
many  people  some  of  the  sentiments  expressed  in  this 
chapter  may  seem  very  radical.  But,  granting  such  an 
indictment,  the  situation  to  be  remedied  is  serious  and 
calls  for  radical  treatment.  Nor  are  the  remedies  sug- 
gested possible  of  accomplishment  in  a  day.  Their 
most  successful  operation  would  doubtless  require  sev- 
eral generations  of  fathers  and  mothers.  Most  of 
the  work,  even  then,  would  have  to  fall  to  the  schools, 
to  the  public  press,  and  to  other  means  of  education. 
May  we  not  be  assured,  however,  that  when  the  per- 
petuity of  a  great  nation,  founded  upon  ideals  of  hu- 
man liberty  and  justice  and  the  right  of  each  individ- 
ual to  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  is  at  stake  the  price  is 
not  too  great?  The  world  needs  all  of  the  dynamic 
altruism  which  such  a  change  would  involve.  The 
integrity  of  womanhood,  the  stability  and  purity  of 
the  American  home  demand  such  a  reasonable  inde- 
pendence of  women;  and  upon  these  factors  rest  the 
enduring  qualities  of  the  nation  and  the  perpetuity  of 
the  race. 

The  following  by  Corra  Harris  gives  a  most  strik- 
ing illustration  of  woman's  capacity,  when  spurred  by 

177 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

necessity  and  by  the  love  of  a  mother  for  her  children, 
of  living  her  life  independently: 

Until  recently  a  very  old  woman  of  yesterday  lived  on 
a  farm  near  my  home  in  the  Valley.  When  the  Civil 
War  closed,  her  husband  returned  to  her  a  helpless  in- 
valid. She  plowed  her  fields,  cut  her  wheat  with  an 
old  fashioned  hand  cradle,  bound  and  shocked  her 
sheaves,  and  harvested  all  her  crops.  She  never  bought 
anything.  She  literally  made  a  living  for  the  family 
out  of  the  ground,  and  they  lived  well.  She  spun  and 
wove  their  clothes,  she  kept  an  immaculate  house.  She 
was  the  mother  of  ten  children.  She  brought  them  up 
in  the  faith  and  gave  each  of  them  a  college  education. 
They  are  the  best  people  in  the  community.  Not  one  of 
them  failed  her.  She  was  never  twenty  miles  from  the 
place  where  she  was  bom  in  her  life.  Are  there  many 
women  of  to-day  who  can  give  such  an  account  of  them- 
selves ? 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

A  more  complete  study  of  the  moral  effect  upon  women 
and  upon  society  of  the  more  complete  economic 
independence  of  her  sex. 

A  study  of  the  most  notable  cases  of  women  who  have 
made  business  careers  for  themselves. 

A  study  of  the  woman  librarian  and  the  opportunities 
offered  for  adequate  training  for  the  work,  together 
with  a  study  of  the  demand  and  causes  for  its  pos- 
sible increase. 

A  more  complete  study  of  woman's  place  and  achieve- 
ment in  the  lecture  field. 

178 


ECONOMIC  INDEPENDENCE 

References 

Barnes,  Earl.  "The  Economic  Independence  of  Wom- 
en."    Atlantic,  110:260-5. 

Ferris,  Helen  J.  (editor).  'The  New  World  and  the 
College  Woman."  Bookman,  42 :678-9i ;  43 :63-74, 
183-93,  286-97. 

Martin,  E.  S.  "The  Economic  Independence  of  Wom- 
en."   Ladies  Home  Journal,  30:25. 

Nearing,  Scott.  "Dependence  of  Women,  Social  Ad- 
justment," pp.  128-48. 

Story  of  the  Mobile  Business  Woman's  Club. 

The  references  under  Chapter  X. 


CHAPTER  XII 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 


An  old,  old  argument  against  votes  by  women  has 
been  their  inability  to  enforce  the  measures  for  which 
they  might  vote  in  case  of  war.  In  the  present  war, 
however,  this  objection  seems  to  have  been  completely 
answered.  In  wars  of  the  past  women  have  suffered 
great  hardship  at  home  and  in  the  care  of  the  sick 
and  wounded.  Often  this  has  meant  exposure  to  great 
danger.  But  now  she  has  added  to  these  former 
achievements  her  ability  to  engage  in  real  war  work 
by  aiding  in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  and  in 
some  cases  even  organizing  companies  for  battle  and 
actually  engaging  in  the  thick  of  the  conflict  with  no 
fear  except  that  of  being  captured  by  the  enemy.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  war  has  enlisted  the  efforts  of 
over  500,000  English  women  alone  in  the  industries, 
including  chiefly  the  manufacture  of  munitions.  Many 
thousands  of  French  women  have  been  similarly  di- 
verted from  the  occupations  of  peace.  It  is  not  strange, 
in  such  circumstances,  that  men  in  those  countries  and 
in  America  are  coming  to  take  a  different  view  as  to 

180 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

the  rights  and  interests  of  women   in  government. 

One  of  the  immediate  results  of  the  war  upon  women 
has  been  their  organization,  in  most  of  the  countries 
at  war,  for  various  special  forms  of  service.  Through 
these  organizations  women  are  helping  to  feed  and 
clothe  the  needy  at  home  and  in  other  lands;  to  pre- 
pare hospital  and  surgeons'  supplies;  to  provide  com- 
forts for  the  men  in  the  trenches ;  to  see  that  the  wives 
and  families  of  married  men  in  service  are  cared  for; 
to  keep  the  social  organization  at  home  in  working  or- 
der; to  curtail  extravagance  and  luxurious  living,  and 
to  conserve  food. 

In  Canada,  for  instance,  there  is  an  organization 
of  volunteer  workers  at  home  who  give  their  atten- 
tion and  much  of  their  time  to  the  aiding  of  the 
families  of  soldiers,  thus  seeking  to  minimize  the 
fearful  waste  of  infant  and  child  life  which  would 
otherwise  result.  They  accomplish  this  by  finding 
ways  for  providing  these  families  with  the  means  for 
preserving  health,  for  recreation,  education,  employ- 
ment, and  spiritual  development. 

It  is  impossible  at  this  time  to  even  estimate  the 
vast  amount  of  business  that  is  carried  on  in  the  in-' 
terests  of  human  life  conservation  by  these  various 
organizations.  Equally  difficult  is  any  attempt  at 
forecasting  what  all  this  cooperative  effort  among 
women  is  to  mean  in  the  future  social  organization. 

i8i 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Certainly  it  must  make  a  difference  in  the  future  abil- 
ity of  women  to  cooperate  in  carrying  forward  any 
important  social  movement.  All  of  this  organized 
effort  is  merely  demonstrating  the  ability  of  women  to 
get  together.  Out  of  it  must  naturally  come  a  situa- 
tion of  greater  independence  for  women  in  both  social 
and  political  affairs. 

Not  only  have  women  formed  these  special  organi- 
zations on  account  of  the  war  emergency  but  they  have 
also  stepped  in  to  fill  the  places  vacated  by  men  in 
order  to  maintain  the  essential  features  of  the  estab- 
lished social  order.  Among  other  things  they  have 
entered  in  large  numbers  the  field  of  agriculture  and 
the  industries  generally.  They  man  street  car  sys- 
tems, operate  hotels,  keep  the  streets  in  order,  serve 
as  elevator  boys,  deliver  mail,  teach  and  supervise 
schools.  They  are  found  in  hundreds  of  places  where 
they  were  not  expected  to  serve  before.  And  these 
are  women  from  all  classes  and  conditions  in  life. 
The  information  we  get  from  England  and  France 
plainly  shows  that  without  the  aid  of  the  women  it 
would  have  been  practically  impossible  to  have  kept 
up  the  war  in  face  of  the  odds  in  favor  of  the  enemy 
on  account  of  superior  preparation  for  the  conflict. 

Everywhere  there  is  a  curtailment  of  extravagance 
and  an  elimination  of  luxuries  in  order  to  free  labor, 
materials  and  money  for  use  in  providing  the  neces- 

182 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

sities  of  the  war.  In  this  the  women  have  led;  and 
they  have  been  tireless  in  their  efforts  to  impress  upon 
all  the  people  the  need  of  frugality  and  saving.  There 
has  been  a  general  revival  of  knitting  and  needle- 
work in  order  to  provide  comforts  for  the  men  in  the 
trenches  and  hospitals. 

Possibly  the  greatest  direct  service  of  women  in  the 
war  is  in  the  Red  Cross  work.  Here  thousands  of 
women  are  giving  not  only  expert  service  but  are  bring- 
ing to  the  wounded  and  sick  such  cheer  and  comfort 
as  only  women  can  give.  Thus  we  have  a  great  auxil- 
iary army,  thoroughly  organized  and  disciplined,  en- 
during hardships  and  dangers  and  giving  always  as- 
surance to  their  brothers  in  arms  that  they  stand  ready, 
as  ministering  angels,  to  dress  their  wounds,  to  apply 
the  remedies  prescribed,  to  cheer  them  in  their  suf- 
fering, to  write  their  letters,  and  to  receive  and  con- 
vey to  those  they  love  back  home  the  last  words  of 
the  men  who  die. 

When  the  war  ends  there  will  remain  to  all  the 
countries  involved  the  problem  of  finding  other  peace- 
ful occupations  to  which  the  thousands  of  women  now 
engaged  in  special  war  industries  and  other  lines  of 
service  may  turn  their  attention  and,  for  those  who 
must  work  to  live,  may  obtain  a  living  wage.  This  is 
only  one  of  the  serious  social  problems  which  women 
must  meet  as  a  result  of  the  war.     It  is  difficult  for 

183 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

men  to  realize  what  it  means  to  women,  all  this  wan- 
ton waste  of  life,  this  overturning  of  all  the  condi- 
tions of  the  peaceful  life  from  which  they  have  been 
forced  by  the  cruel  deeds  of  men.  Woman  whose 
occupation  normally  is  that  of  nurturing  life  is  most 
profoundly  moved  by  war  with  all  its  destructiveness. 
It  is  but  natural  that  doubts  should  arise  as  to  the 
rights  of  governments,  as  Jane  Addams  has  pointed 
out,  thus  to  disrupt  the  peace  of  the  world,  woman's 
world  of  life  giving  and  life  nurturing,  and  yet  give 
her  no  voice  in  the  matter,  no  word  of  choice.  It  is 
indeed  too  much  to  expect  that  woman  should  suffer 
in  silence  thus  when  her  mother-heart  is  torn  with  the 
sharp  agony  over  the  death  of  her  child.  Yet  this  is 
what  is  happening — the  highest  manifestation  of  for- 
titude, of  true  heroism  of  which  the  world  can  ever 
know! 

Another  very  interesting  feature  of  woman's  serv- 
ice in  war  is  the  splendid  work  being  projected  by  the 
young  women  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  which  aims  to  in- 
terest unemployed  young  women  in  the  communities 
where  soldiers  are  quartered  in  some  occupation  or  to 
instruct  them  as  to  the  significance  of  their  attitude 
toward  the  young  men  of  the  camps.  Here  is  a 
great  opportunity  for  young  women  who  are  quite 
sure  of  themselves,  and  whose  ideals  of  womanhood 
are  sane  and  stable  to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  an 

184 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

atmosphere  that  may  do  very  much  to  negative  the 
baneful  influence  of  commercialized  sex. 

There  appear  to  be  two  problems  aflFecting  women 
as  a  result  of  the  war  which  overshadow  in  their  im- 
portance all  other  matters  concerning  woman's  rela- 
tion to  the  war.  The  first  of  these,  and  one  that  has 
already  been  discussed,  is  that  of  the  industrial  read- 
justment for  women  when  peace  shall  come.  The  sec- 
ond, and  one  of  the  greatest  if  not  the  overshadowing 
problem  of  all  which  may  result  from  the  war  will  be 
the  limitations  upon  marriages  for  thousands  of  eligi- 
ble young  women  and  the  resultant  effect  on  the  re- 
plenishing of  the  world's  stock  of  well-bred  men.  It 
seems  inevitable  that  the  number  of  unmarried  women 
will  be  greatly  increased  as  a  result  of  the  great  dis- 
turbance of  the  balance  between  the  numbers  of  males 
and  females.  Further,  a  relatively  large  number  of 
the  males  will  fall  far  short  of  the  standards  of  eu- 
genics for  males  who  are  to  become  the  progenitors 
of  succeeding  generations  of  men. 

It  is  a  well  recognized  lesson  of  history  that  all 
great  wars  have  resulted  in  a  decided  degeneracy  of 
the  generations  following  unless  offset  by  some  coun- 
ter influence.  In  the  case  of  the  Civil  War  in  this 
country  the  effect  was  largely  counteracted  in  the 
northern  states  by  the  immigration  of  imattached 
young  men  from  Europe.    But  as  the  war  now  raging 

i8S 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

will  leave  matters,  there  will  be  little  opportunity 
among  Caucasian  races  for  the  operation  of  any  such 
adjustment.  What  then  are  we  to  look  forward  to, 
and  what  should  be  the  attitude  of  society,  and  espe- 
cially of  women,  toward  such  a  situation? 

Miss  Key,  writing  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  has 
pointed  out  several  alternatives,  many  of  them  danger- 
ous when  weighed  by  our  present  standards  of  sex- 
morality  and  the  integrity  of  the  family  as  the  social 
tmit.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  great  danger  that 
there  may  be  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  women 
who  will  lead  immoral  lives,  thus  not  only  becoming 
traitors  to  their  sex,  but  also,  by  the  distribution  of 
infectious  diseases,  unfitting  many  men  for  parent- 
hood. Or  there  will  be  a  great  increase  in  the  number 
of  children  bom  out  of  wedlock  to  be  cursed  by  the 
social  stigma  that  is  certain  to  result  unless  there  is  a 
radical  change  from  the  present  social  attitude  in  such 
cases.  The  wide  prevalence  of  infectious  diseases  will 
prove  a  strong  obstacle  to  the  adoption  of  such  chil- 
dren into  good  homes. 

Another  danger  which  the  situation  will  present 
will  be  the  probable  increase  of  defective  children  be- 
cause of  invalid  fathers.  Or  if  this  is  not  an  impor- 
tant result  the  tendency  will  be  to  larger  families  and 
weaker  and  more  poorly  educated  children  rather  than 
the  fewer,  stronger  and  better  educated  for  which  we 

i86 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

have  so  long  been  hoping.  There  will  be  danger  also 
from  the  many  loveless  marriages  entered  into  by 
young  women  on  purely  patriotic  grounds,  perhaps. 
Estrangements,  or  the  more  frequent  recurrence  of 
the  fatal  triangle  in  marital  relations  are  apt  to  re- 
sult. 

The  situation  will  be  opportune  for  the  adherents  to 
the  idea  that  polygamy  is  the  proper  solution  and  cure 
for  the  social  evil.  Or  society  will  take  on  something 
of  the  aspect  of  the  situation  portrayed  by  Peter  Ros- 
siger  in  "The  Forest  Schoolmaster"  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  hirnian  denizens  of  the  forest  as  without 
marriage,  with  no  family  ties,  no  community  life,  no 
church,  no  God. 

How  is  this  inevitable  situation  of  so  many  young 
women  instinctively  impelled  toward  marriage  and 
motherhood  as  the  great  ideal  of  life  to  be  safe- 
guarded against  such  hurtful  and  race  degrading  al- 
ternatives as  are  above  enumerated  ?  In  the  first  place, 
all  men  and  women  having  the  integrity  of  the  family 
and  of  democracy  at  heart,  should,  by  a  study  of  this 
problem,  be  prepared  to  direct  the  thought  of  their  re- 
spective communities  in  right  channels  and  toward 
right  ideals.  It  will  be  extremely  important  that  girls 
in  the  public  schools  and  young  women  in  the  market 
places  of  the  country  be  thoroughly  instructed  as  to 
the  moral  and  social  aspects  of  the  problem. 

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THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

To  further  safeguard  the  situation  there  should  be  a 
more  careful  supervision  of  the  social  life  of  yoimg 
women  and  girls  with  a  view  to  giving  every  opportu- 
nity for  them  to  discover  affinities  among  marriage- 
able young  men.  This  is  made  all  the  more  necessary 
because  of  the  increasing  niunbers  of  young  women 
who  are  entering  the  industries. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  age  at  which  young  men 
will  marry  will  be  younger  than  heretofore,  espe- 
cially if  they  can  see  a  way  to  support  a  wife  and 
family.  The  removal  of  disability  of  married  women 
in  some  callings,  as  in  teaching,  will  aid  greatly  in 
this  connection;  but  the  daughters  of  well-to-do  fami- 
lies should  be  differently  educated  as  to  tastes  so  that 
they  need  not  make  extravagant  demands  upon  the  in- 
comes of  young  men  just  starting  in  business  or  pro- 
fessional careers.  As  matters  now  are  many  a  young 
man  who  would  prefer  marriage  and  a  home  of  his 
own  even  though  it  were  rented,  is  afraid  to  under- 
take it  because  of  the  demands  that  would  come  for 
costly  costumes  and  entertainments.  The  entire  situ- 
ation will  be  greatly  simplified  if  the  growing  gaps  be- 
tween classes  can  be  obliterated — those  wrong  no- 
tions as  to  real  merit  in  young  men  or  young  women 
which  go  along  with  the  acquisition  of  wealth  espe- 
cially when  the  wealth  is  inherited. 

The  summing  of  the  whole  matter  is  that  we  need 
i88 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

to  take  account  of  stock  as  to  the  real  social  values. 
If  we  believe  in  maintaining  the  integrity  of  the  home 
and  family  we  shall  need  to  unite  all  forces  of  home 
and  school  and  the  public  press  in  establishing  in  the 
minds  of  our  girls  and  young  women  the  fundamental 
truths  with  regard  to  sex  relations  and  the  part  they 
must  play  in  the  building  of  happy  homes.  We  shall 
have  need  also  to  call  constantly  upon  their  patriotism 
that  they  may  be  open-minded  toward  these  truths 
and  toward  the  great  needs  of  society  to  conserve  all 
eligible  young  manhood  for  the  building  up  of  new 
families. 

Woman's  part  and  attitude  in  any  such  emergency 
is  well  expressed  by  the  following  quotation  from  an 
article  in  the  Craftsman  for  November,  1916,  on 
*'Demeter's  Daughters" : 

When  the  great  call  goes  up  from  the  earth  for  help 
along  the  most  fundamental  reaches  of  life,  the  answer 
is  almost  invariably  made  by  the  women  of  the  world. 
Through  motherhood  woman  has  learned  the  care  of  the 
body,  the  care  of  the  soul;  she  has  learned  that  there 
are  times  when  she  must  comfort  mankind,  she  knows 
that  her  arms  must  be  strong  to  lift,  her  breast  must 
succor,  that  her  words  must  bring  courage.  She  has 
learned  how  to  leave  her  home  of  luxury,  of  peace,  of 
idleness,  and  move  out  over  the  world  with  healing  in 
her  hands.  It  is  no  effort  for  her  to  turn  back  and 
plow  the   soil  and  stand  in  the  wheat  field  with  the 

189 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

winnow  in  her  hand.    Woman  is  today,  as  she  has  been 
from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  Demeter's  Daughter. 

It  is  in  the  very  logic  of  things  that  women  should 
desire  peace  rather  than  war.  Yet  given  a  righteous 
cause  and  an  inevitable  call  in  the  name  of  humanity 
and  women  have  ever  been  ready  to  bear  their  part. 
An  incident  related  by  Miss  Repplier^  is  a  case  in 
point.  A  young  Frenchman  had  resided  for  some  time 
in  America,  seemingly  with  no  intention  of  returning 
to  France  for  the  service  of  his  country.  His  mother 
wrote:  "My  son  your  two  brothers  are  at  the  front. 
Are  you  not  coming  back  to  {ight  for  France?"  At 
this  summons  from  his  mother  the  young  man  sailed 
on  the  very  next  steamer. 

It  was  a  woman  who  gave  to  America  the  "Battle 
Hymn  of  the  Republic."  It  was  Florence  Nightingale 
who  organized  the  Red  Cross  movement.  The  his- 
tory of  wars  is  full  of  the  accounts  of  daring,  of  suf- 
fering and  of  sacrifice  on  the  part  of  noble  women. 
One  writer  has  said  that  "The  hope  of  peace  lies  not 
in  laws  and  treaties,  not  in  systems  of  government,  not 
in  democracies  nor  despots,  but  in  the  hearts  and  minds 
of  men.  Whether  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men  can  be 
so  transformed  as  to  cause  them  to  turn  from  the 
world-old  practice  of  war  to  abiding  peace  is  a  ques- 
tion which  nothing  but  experience  can  answer."  Prob- 

*  Agnes  Repplier,  "Woman  in  War,"  Atlantic,  115:577-85. 

190 


WOMEN  AND  WAR 

ably  the  most  potent  influence  toward  such  a  trans- 
formation of  the  minds  of  men  will  come  from  organ- 
ized womanhood.  Certainly  their  plea  for  peace  will 
be  all  the  stronger  because  they  have  so  uncomplain- 
ingly shared  the  suffering  of  war.  The  mother  heart 
speaks  in  every  part  that  woman  takes  in  time  of  war 
or  in  her  plea  for  peace.  Someone  has  expressed  this 
in  the  following  lines  entitled  "Women  to  Men" : 

God  bless  you,  lads ! 
All  women  of  the  race, 

As  forth  you  go, 
Wish  you  with  steadfast  face 

The  best  they  know. 

God  cheer  you,  lads! 
Out  in  the  bitter  nights; 

Down  the  drear  days. 
Through   the    red    reeking   fights 

And  wasted  ways. 

God  bring  you,  lads. 
Back  to  the  motherland. 

True  laurels  gained. 
Glory  in  either  hand, 

Honor  unstained. 

Women  of  Britain's  race. 
As  forth  you  go, 

Wish  you  with  proud  glad  face 
The  best  they  know: 

God  bless  you,  lads! 

191 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

A  study  of  the  Red  Cross  movement  and  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  effective  in  various  lands. 

Study  the  activities  engaged  in  by  the  women  of  Eng- 
land and  France  as  a  direct  aid  to  carrying  on  the 
war. 

Study  the  effect  of  other  great  wars  upon  the  character 
of  generations  immediately  following;  upon  the 
problem  of  marriage. 

References 

Brockett,  Linus  P.  "Woman's  Work  in  the  Civil  War." 
Boston,  R.  H.  Curran,  1867. 

Fawcett,  M.  G.  "Woman's  Work  in  War  Time."  Con- 
temporary Review,  106:775-82. 

Harvey,  G.  "War  and  the  Woman."  North  American 
Review,  201 :344-7. 

Key,  Ellen  K.  S.  "War,  Peace  and  the  Future."  New 
York,  Putnams,  191 6. 

Repplier,  Agnes.     "Women  and  War."     Atlantic,  115: 

577-85- 
Spencer,  A.  G.     "Woman  and  War."    Independent,  81 : 

121-4. 
'Women  and  the  War."    Outlook,  109 :676-7. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

WOMEN    IN   ART^    MUSIC   AND   THE  DRAMA 

The  field  of  art  is  very  wide  as  the  term  is  ordinarily 
used,  wide  enough  to  include  all  in  this  chapter  title 
and  more.  It  seems  best  for  the  present  purpose,  how- 
ever, to  employ  the  term  in  a  more  restricted  sense. 
And  so  we  shall  consider  in  detail  the  three  topics  as 
named. 

I.    WOMAN   IN  ART 

It  would  seem  that  in  any  phase  of  art  woman 
should  be  peculiarly  at  home.  Beauty  of  color  and 
form  are  always  attractive  to  her.  Her  most  common 
occupations  tend  to  develop  lightness  of  touch  with 
skill  of  hand.  We  have  already  found,  indeed,  that 
decorative  art  came  early  when  primitive  woman 
sought  to  beautify  the  pottery  she  fashioned  or  the 
tapestries  she  wove  by  simple  designs  in  form  and 
color.  Again  in  the  tradition  of  Kora,  the  Virgin  of 
Corinth,  who  made  a  rude  charcoal  sketch  of  the  pro- 
file of  her  lover's  face  as  she  caught  its  sharp  outline 
against  a  backgrotmd  of  light,  we  have  an  early  sug- 
gestion of  the  art  of  portrait  painting. 

193 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  were  several  women  who 
manifested  abiHty  in  art.  There  appeared  Aristorate, 
daughter  and  pupil  of  Nearchus;  Anaxandra,  daugh- 
ter of  Nealces ;  and  Helena  who  painted  the  Battle  of 
Issus.  In  Rome  conditions  did  not  favor  art.  Yet 
Rome  gave  to  the  world  Lala,  first  among  women  as 
a  painter  of  portraits  of  those  of  her  own  sex. 

After  Greece  and  Rome  not  much  appears  as  the 
work  of  women  in  art  until  about  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. In  that  period  we  find  a  number  of  women  in 
the  school  of  Bologna.  Italy  gave  many  women  gifted 
as  painters  some  of  whose  works  live  today.  Among 
these  appears  Rosalba  Carriera,  the  most  famous  pas- 
tellist  of  her  period.  Her  paintings  won  recognition 
in  all  the  academies  of  note. 

In  France  and  Belgium  also  appear  many  names  of 
women  whose  paintings  are  remembered.  In  the 
French  schools  appear  such  names  as  Mme.  Vigee  Le- 
Brun,  Mme.  Guyard,  Mme.  Filleul,  and  Rosa  Bon- 
heur.  In  the  Liege  group  of  Belgian  art  is  a  goodly 
list  of  famous  women.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  women  of  greatest  note  in  art  have  belonged  to 
the  modern  periods  and  usually  with  nations  in  which 
democracy  has  become  highly  developed.  Holland, 
Germany  and  Russia  have  also  produced  some  women 
painters  but  not  to  the  extent  that  has  been  true  of 
the  other  great  European  nations. 

194 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

Great  Britain  has  given  to  art  such  names  among 
women  as  Catharine  Read,  Angelica  Kauffman,  Anna 
Alma-Tadema,  and  Eleanor  Brickdale. 

In  the  United  States  the  material  interest  of  a  newly 
developing  country  checked,  for  a  time,  the  advance 
of  art.  But  even  so  there  is  quite  a  respectable  list 
of  names  of  women  who  have  won  places  for  them- 
selves in  painting.  Among  these  may  well  be  men- 
tioned Mary  Cassatt,  Cecilia  Beaux,  Mrs.  Merritt, 
Helen  Hyde,  Cornelia  W.  Conant  and  Jennie  Browns- 
combe.  While  women  of  this  country  have  ventured 
into  practically  all  fields  where  men  have  sought  fame 
from  the  palette  and  brush,  yet  they  seem  to  have  ac- 
complished most  in  portraiture  and  illustrative  paint- 
ing. 

But  the  art  of  women  has  not  all  been  confined  to 
painting.  Ada  Raney,  in  volume  93  of  the  Century 
magazine  has  given  us  an  account  of  American  Women 
in  Sculpture  that  should  make  every  American  woman 
proud  of  her  sex.  Miss  Raney  tells  us  of  Janet  Scud- 
der  whose  work  filled  an  entire  room  in  the  Fine  Arts 
Building  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition;  of  Edith 
Woodman  Burroughs  and  Mrs.  Harry  Payne  Whit- 
ney who  were  chosen  to  design  fountains  for  the  Ex- 
position ;  and  of  Miss  Evelyn  Longman  who  also  con- 
tributed for  the  Exposition.  In  her  list  we  find  men- 
tion also  of  Miss  Anna  Vaughn  Hyatt  who  deals  al- 

195 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

most  entirely  with  expression  of  animals.  Miss  Hyatt's 
work  is  remarkable  for  its  strength  and  spirited  han- 
dling. At  the  same  time  it  is  also  scientifically  cor- 
rect. Farther  on  appears  the  name  of  Mrs.  Edith 
Baretto  Parsons  who,  as  wife  and  mother,  but  free 
from  the  cares  of  breadwinning  and  household  man- 
agement found  great  pleasure  in  pursuing  her  art 
work.  Three  of  the  list  above  given  are  mothers  of 
children.  Mrs.  Whitney  received  honorable  mention  in 
the  Paris  Salon.  Miss  Hyatt's  work  was  also  given 
second  place  by  the  Parisian  judges  and  with  the  com- 
ment that  if  they  had  been  quite  sure  that  her  work 
was  entirely  her  own  without  masculine  assistance  they 
would  have  given  her  first  place.  The  only  existing 
ground  for  their  doubt  was  in  the  remarkable  strength 
of  her  work! 

Other  American  women  who  have  attained  note  as 
sculptors  are  Alice  Ruggels  Kitoon,  Kuehne  Beveridge 
and  Clio  Bracken.  The  latter's  work,  done  at  the  Art 
Institute,  Chicago,  attracted  much  attention  for  its 
originality  and  beauty. 

Miss  Raney's  comments  in  the  article  above  re- 
ferred to  are  illuminating  and  suggestive.  In  charac- 
terizing the  work  of  the  women  mentioned  she  says: 
"A  joyous  exuberance  is  the  dominating  quality.  .  .  . 
The  subjects  are  nearly  always  of  youth;  they  are 
creatures  of  joyous  imagination  and  superb  vitality." 

196 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

To  account  for  this  spirit  of  the  women  artists  Miss 
Raney  ^ys  at  the  opening  of  her  article  that  "as  surely 
as  the  old  shackles  are  being  cast  off,  a  new  creative- 
ness  is  to  be  discerned  in  their  artistic  work." 

The  art  work  of  women  is  shown  in  many  ways  be- 
sides those  of  painting  and  sculpture.  They  have  long 
been  prominent  in  decorative  art,  including  tapestries 
and  home  interiors,  artistic  embroidery,  and  the  dec- 
oration of  china.  As  has  been  previously  noted  they 
have  also  found  places  in  architecture  and  landscape 
work.  In  the  first  of  these  fields  we  find  an  appar- 
ently growing  interest  for  women,  with  a  respectable 
showing  of  professional  architects  in  America.  In 
landscape  work  and  the  allied  fields  of  floriculture 
woman  is  still  more  conspicuous.  One  school  at  Gro- 
ton,  Massachusetts,  is  maintained  exclusively  for  the 
education  of  women  for  landscape  architecture.  Per- 
haps woman's  most  effective  field  in  relation  to  art 
has  been  that  of  art  teaching  in  public  schools  and 
higher  institutions.  Here  she  has  exercised  a  pro- 
found influence  upoA  the  young  with  regard  to  their 
appreciation  of  art  and  its  relation  to  the  life  of  the 
home  and  the  community. 

In  looking  through  the  various  works  which  treat 
of  the  subject  of  art  one  is  constantly  confronted  with 
a  peculiarly  reticent  attitude  of  men  who  have  written 
on  the  subject.     The  experience  of  Miss  Hyatt  with 

197 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  art  critics  of  Paris  is  in  line  with  this  general  at- 
titude. Men  seem  to  have  taken  it  for  granted  that 
nothing  really  great  in  art  could  come  from  women. 
They  simply  have  been  unable  to  apply  any  except 
what  they  have  considered  peculiarly  masculine  quali- 
ties in  their  estimation  of  artistic  productions.  In 
this  connection  it  is  significant  that  Mr.  Ruskin  in  his 
extensive  study  of  Modem  Painters  finds  no  place  for 
woman  in  that  field  of  art.  Even  in  encyclopedic  ar- 
ticles on  painting  it  is  in  American  works  chiefly  that 
we  find  any  mention  made  of  women  painters.  Caffin 
in  his  book  on  "American  Masters  of  Sculpture"  men- 
tions no  women  at  all,  and  in  his  "Story  of  American 
Painters"  names  only  Cecilia  Beaux. 

It  may  be  only  fair  to  observe  that  while  women 
have  largely  confined  themselves,  and  quite  naturally, 
to  the  same  types  and  media  in  art  as  have  their  male 
instructors,  yet  it  is  possible  that  there  may  be  found  in 
their  productions  qualities  different  from  but  not  less 
excellent  than  those  which  men  have  displayed.  The 
pastelle  work  of  Rosalba  Carriera,  for  instance,  or 
Miss  Hyatt's  portrayal,  in  plastic  art,  of  the  expres- 
sions of  animals,  might  serve  as  suggestions.  In  both 
these  forms  of  expression  the  delicate  touch  of  the 
hand  is  fundamental.  Is  it  not  possible  that  this  harks 
back  to  primitive  woman's  interest  in  plastic  art  ?  And 
would  not  the  fact  of  her  relatively  meager  oppor- 

198 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

tunities  for  instruction  and  growth  in  art  be  a  fair 
explanation  of  such  a  level  for  her  beginning? 

2.    WOMEN   IN   MUSIC 

This  is  no  less  a  phase  of  art;  but  it  is  sufficiently 
differentiated  in  character  to  admit  of  separate  con- 
sideration. The  Hindoos  have  a  legend  that  Seris- 
vati,  a  woman,  first  brought  music  to  man.  In  all 
Indian  legends  great  charm  is  ascribed  to  music,  and 
the  Hindoo  music  of  the  present  day  is  ascribed  largely 
to  women.  Woman  appears  also  as  a  singer  of  psalms 
among  the  Hebrews.  The  Greeks  produced  their 
Sappho,  who,  though  usually  thought  of  as  a  poetess, 
undoubtedly  sang  the  songs  she  composed.  St.  Ce- 
cilia, a  Pagan  woman  wedded  to  a  Roman,  and 
later  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  Christianity,  is  known 
as  the  patroness  of  music  and  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  the  organ. 

We  find  little  mention  of  women  as  musicians  dur- 
ing  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe  or  in  earlier  modem 
Europe.  Perhaps  the  chief  of  those  who  attained  some 
note  in  Germany  was  Clara  Wieck  Schumann  the  noted 
pianist,  and  wife  of  Schumann  the  composer.  Women 
of  France  who  won  lasting  recognition  in  the  musical 
world  are  Madame  Ferrenc,  Cecile  Chaminade,  and 
Camille  Erlanger.  In  the  Netherlands  Juliette  Fol- 
ville  of  Belgium  is  recognized  as  a  composer  of  opera, 

199 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

while  in  Holland  Cora  Dopper  leads  in  opera,  and 
Catharine  van  Rennes  and  Hendrika  van  Tussenbroek 
as  composers  of  songs  for  children.  In  Scandinavia, 
Norway  has  given  to  the  world  Agathe  Backer-Grohn- 
dahl  as  a  great  pianist  and  composer.  Elf  rida  Audree 
leads  an  interesting  group  of  Swedish  women.  Others 
of  this  group  are  Helen  Munktell,  Valborg  Aulin,  and 
Alice  Tegner.  In  England  the  outstanding  names 
among  women  composers  are:  Liza  Lehmann,  com- 
poser of  a  beautiful  vocal  cycle,  and  Frances  Allitsen, 
writer  of  a  number  of  songs  full  of  grace  and  beauty. 

It  is  the  same  story  as  in  the  case  of  art.  The  men 
of  Europe  have  long  opposed  women  as  composers  of 
music.  Notwithstanding  this  opposition  there  are  sev- 
eral prominent  names  of  women  among  American 
composers.  Most  notable,  perhaps,  is  Mrs.  H.  H.  A. 
Beach,  although  in  opera  Emma  Steiner  holds  first 
rank.  There  is  a  goodly  list  of  composers  of  sym- 
phonic poems,  suites  and  overtures.  Among  other 
names  which  might  be  mentioned  are  those  of  Mar- 
garet R.  Lang  and  the  celebrated  pianist,  Julia  Rive- 
King.  Carrie  Jacobs  Bond  has  a  wide  reputation  also 
for  the  sweet  little  melodies  which  she  has  contributed. 
Among  song  writers  for  children  the  names  of  Mrs. 
Jessie  L.  Gaynor  and  Eleanor  Smith  are  most  con- 
spicuous. 

As  interpreters  and  teachers  of  music  women  hold 
200 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

a  very  large  place,  indeed,  in  the  musical  world  of 
America.  But  in  music  as  well  as  in  art  women  have 
always  been  handicapped,  much  to  the  regret  of  all 
music  lovers  who  have  come  to  realize  something  of 
what  woman's  special  talent  is  in  this  art.  Mr.  L. 
Stokowski,  writing  of  women  in  orchestra  says: 

We  are  deliberately  shutting  away  great  forces  of 
beauty  and  progress  by  leaving  women  out  of  our  scheme 
of  things  in  the  art-world.  .  .  .  When  I  think  of  women 
as  I  see  them  in  the  musical  world,  what  they  are  capa- 
ble of  doing,  their  fine  spirit,  excellent  technique,  I 
realize  what  a  splendid  power  we  are  letting  go  to  waste 
in  this  country  and  in  other  countries  too.^ 

Here  is  certainly  an  interesting  point  of  view;  and 
it  is  all  the  more  striking  because  what  we  know  of 
woman's  accomplishment  in  music,  even  at  a  tremen- 
dous disadvantage,  tends  to  verify  Mr.  Stokowski's 
judgment.  Of  course  there  is  always  woman's  pe- 
culiar race  burden,  motherhood,  to  baffle  her  longings 
for  achievement  in  art.  How  many  women  have 
fought  with  themselves  with  the  primal  urge  of  sex- 
obligation  pitted  against  this  art-craving  the  world 
will  never  know.  Yet  many  women  have  found  a 
way  by  which  to  satisfy  both  calls,  at  least  measur- 
ably. We  have  noted  cases  like  those  of  Mrs.  Bur- 
roughs, Mrs.  Whitney  and  Mrs.  Parsons  in  the  plastic 

***Women  in  Orchestra,"  Literary  Digest,  52:504-5. 

201 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

art,  where  women  won  honors  in  art  and  at  the  same 
time  were  true  to  the  obligations  of  motherhood. 

Mrs.  Helen  Ware,  writing  for  the  Musician,  has 
told  how  in  the  musical  world  the  mother  may  still 
cultivate  her  art.  Indeed  she  is  able  to  see  in  the 
experiences  of  motherhood  that  which  contributes  an 
indispensable  quality  to  her  musical  expression.  Speak- 
ing as  both  mother  and  musical  artist  she  says: 

Among  the  greatest  women  artists  supreme  alone  are 
they  whose  lives  have  been  broadened  through  the  en- 
nobling influences  which  come  with  Motherhood.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  Motherhood  certainly  does  not 
lighten  the  burdens  of  a  musical  career.  But  on  closer 
study  we  learn  that  the  woman  artist's  new  problems, 
which  follow  in  the  wake  of  new  responsibilities,  are  of 
a  nature  which  can  be  solved  through  economic  me- 
diums.* 

This  is  another  way  of  saying  that  motherhood, 
freed  from  the  cares  of  bread  winning,  may  still  as- 
pire to  success  in  a  chosen  field  of  art.  What  a  sug- 
gestion is  this  to  the  young  women  with  artistic  talent, 
married,  and  economically  free. 

But  our  consideration  of  woman's  place  in  music 
would  be  lacking  in  one  very  important  particular  if 
we  were  to  omit  to  mention  her  interpretive  ability  as 
shown  in  the  opera.  To  most  Americans  the  first  name 
that  comes  to  mind  in  this  connection  is  that  of  Jenny 
*  "The  Mother  Artist."    Helen  Ware,  Musician,  21  728. 

202 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

Lind  the  sweet  singer  from  Sweden  who  toured  this 
country  about  1850.  Since  that  date  many  great  in- 
terpreters of  the  master  composers  of  opera  have 
arisen  among  women.  From  Italy,  France,  Germany, 
Russia,  England,  Scandinavia,  all  European  lands,  and 
America,  they  have  come.  Even  in  America,  where 
grand  opera  is  said  not  to  flourish,  there  are  very  many 
names  familiar,  almost,  as  household  words. 

There  are  Patti,  Nielsen,  Calve,  Melba,  Yaw,  Sem- 
brich,  Tetrazzini,  Schumann-Heink,  Louise  Homer, 
Johanna  Gadski,  Alma  Gluck,  Geraldine  Farrar,  Mary 
Garden,  Julia  Culp,  Amelita  Galli-Curci,  and  a  score 
of  others  who  might  be  mentioned  as  having  won  a 
place  in  the  rank  of  artists  of  note  in  this  field  of  musi- 
cal interpretation. 

3.    WOMAN  IN  THE  DRAMA 

Histrionic  art  has  been  and  still  is  one  of  the  great 
educators  of  the  race.  On  its  literary  side  it  calls  for 
strong  constructive  power  of  the  mind,  a  power  which 
must  deal  with  all  the  subtleties  of  human  motives — 
the  traditions,  the  passions,  the  obsessions,  the  insan- 
ities of  mankind.  On  Its  expressional  side  it  calls  for 
strong  mimetic  power  coupled  with  keen  insight  and 
readiness  of  interpretation  of  the  playwriter's  con- 
ception of  human  motives  manifesting  themselves  in 
conduct,  in  action,  in  all  the  varied  elements  of  human 

203 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

behavior.  In  this  respect  it  is  closely  allied  with  music, 
and  especially  the  opera.  In  both  these  aspects  of  the 
drama  of  modem  times  women  play  very  important 
roles. 

Just  at  the  present  time  the  drama  is  in  a  peculiar 
state  of  uncertainty  as  to  its  continued  existence  and 
the  form  it  is  finally  to  take  on  if  it  is  to  continue  to 
be  a  force  in  the  educational-recreational  affairs  of 
men  and  women.  The  photo-play  has  caused  a  revolu- 
tion in  dramatic  art  and  no  one  can  now  foresee  what 
the  final  outcome  is  to  be.  But  whatever  turn  dra- 
matic interests  may  take  it  seems  quite  certain  that 
woman's  part  in  its  production  and  interpretation  is  to 
become  more  and  more  important. 

For  our  present  purpose  we  shall,  doubtless,  find  it 
best  to  ignore  this  revolutionary  condition  of  the  drama 
and  consider  it  more  as  it  has  come  to  be  known  to 
us  in  its  legitimate  and  heretofore  established  char- 
acteristics. To  begin  with,  then,  there  is  the  woman 
playwright.    Of  her  Alan  Dale  says: 

But  when  the  stage  prospered  and  plays  meant  more 
than  they  do  today,  when  theatre-going  was  more  of  a 
luxury  than  it  is  at  the  present  time  and  the  movies  had 
not  stepped  in  to  interfere  with  the  drama,  the  woman 
playwright  was  very  much  in  evidence,  and  the  "femi- 
nine touch,"  which  the  stage  needs  more  than  it  needs 
anything  else,  made  a  distinct  appeal  to  the  public.    Sev- 

204 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

eral  women  acquired  wealth  and  fame  and  the  theater 
welcomed  them.^ 

Speaking  again  of  the  nature  of  woman's  work  as 
a  successful  playwright  the  same  author  says:  "The 
feminine  playwright  has  invariably  succeeded  when 
she  steered  away  from  the  grooves  trodden  by  men." 
Here  in  an  entirely  different  realm  of  art  we  find 
acknowledgment  of  a  peculiar  quality  in  woman's  art, 
even  as  it  appeared  in  painting  and  plastic  art  and  in 
music. 

There  is  a  long  list  of  notable  women  who  have  won 
their  recognition  through  the  production  of  plays.  The 
lists  here  given  are  without  comment;  for  a  discus- 
sion of  their  productions  is  not  within  the  scope  and 
purpose  of  this  book.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
number  of  these  who  wrote  as  married  women :  Mar- 
tha Morton,  Marguerite  Merington,  Frances  Hodgson 
Burnett,  Edith  Ellis  Baker,  Catharine  Chisholm  Cush- 
ing,  Beulah  Marie  Dix,  Grace  Livingston  Furniss, 
Anne  Crawford  Flexner,  Jeannette  Gilder,  Mrs.  Bur- 
ton Harrison,  Cicely  Hamilton,  Alice  E.  Ives,  Frances 
Aymer  Mathews,  Ethel  Watts  Mum  ford,  Margaret 
Mayo,  Lottie  Blair  Parker,  the  Baroness  Orczy,  Mrs. 
Abby  Sage  Richardson,  Madeline  Lucette  Riley,  Eliza- 
beth Robins,  Molly  Elliott  Seawell. 

^Delineator,  Feb.  1917. 

205 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Among  those  who  have  succeeded  admirably  in  hu- 
morous drama  are  Margaret  Mayo,  named  above, 
Elizabeth  Jordan,  Ann  Caldwell,  and  May  Robson. 
Other  women  worthy  of  note  for  their  contributions 
to  dramatic  literature  are:  Mary  H.  Austin,  Alice 
Brown,  John  Oliver  Hobbs  (Mrs.  Craigie),  Mrs. 
Frank  Leslie,  Gladys  Unger,  Cora  Maynard,  Mrs. 
Pacheco,  Beatrice  de  Mille,  Mrs.  Musgrove,  Mrs. 
Charles  A.  Doremus,  Eleanor  Gates,  Mrs.  W.  K.  Clif- 
ford, Marie  Madison,  Amelie  Rives  (Princess  Trou- 
betzkoy).  As  yet  only  a  few  women  have  undertaken 
the  managerial  function  in  the  production  of  the  drama, 
at  least  outside  of  the  photo-play.  Elisabeth  Marbury 
is,  however,  noteworthy  for  managerial  ability. 

In  the  field  of  dramatic  interpretation  women  seem 
destined  to  lead.  To  this  distinction  their  natural  at- 
tractiveness and  versatility  in  expression  contribute 
not  a  little.  Then  their  capacity  for  detail  and  their 
grace  of  movement  enable  them  to  bring  out  little 
niceties  in  expression  which  add  greatly  to  the  gen- 
eral effect,  but  which  men  are  apt  to  overlook  or  to 
replace  by  vigor  of  action  with  but  little  grace. 

On  the  European  stage  the  names  that  stand  out 
among  many  are,  in  France,  Mme.  Rachel,  Sarah  Bern- 
hardt, and  Constant  Coquelin.  With  the  English  stage 
we  find  Mrs.  Barry;  Mrs.  Cantlivere  as  both  play- 

206 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

Wright  and  actress;  Mrs.  Siddons;  Ellen  Terry;  Clara 
Fisher,  and  Fanny  Kemble. 

Among  the  noteworthy  interpreters  of  drama  in 
America  are  these:  Charlotte  Cushman,  greatest  of 
American  actresses;  Mary  Cecilia  Taylor,  Anna  Cora 
Mowatt,  Mrs.  Anne  Gilbert,  Elizabeth  Crocker  Bow- 
ers, Maggie  Mitchell,  Matilda  Heron,  Laura  Keene, 
"Lotta''  Crabtree,  Rose  Coghlin,  Clara  Morris,  Fanny 
Davenport,  Mary  Anderson,  Ada  Rehan,  Minnie  Mad- 
dern  Fiske,  Anna  Russell,  Julia  Marlowe,  Mrs.  Leslie 
Carter,  Maude  Adams.  What  a  splendid  list  of  women 
who  have  won  real  greatness  in  the  dramatic  world  as 
rare  portrayers  of  the  motives,  the  passions  that  move 
humanity  and  determine  the  course  of  human  events! 

Thus  briefly  we  catch  a  view  of  woman's  place  in 
this  great  trio  of  the  expressional  arts.  Always  strug- 
gling against  the  dominant  impulses  of  her  nature, 
yielding  often  to  these  impulses,  yet  in  spite  of  this 
achieving  greatness  in  no  small  degree  when  all  is 
considered.  To  fully  appreciate  what  woman  has 
meant  to  art,  music,  and  the  drama  one  would  need, 
by  imagination,  to  consider  what  the  world  would  have 
been  without  her  contribution.  When  all  the  condi- 
tions are  weighed  does  it  not  appear  that  the  time  has 
come  when  men  should  do  all  in  their  power  to  clear 
the  way  for  woman's  free  entrance  into  all  these  fields 
with  all  opportunity  for  the  fullest  possible  develop- 

207 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ment  of  her  still  latent  powers?  How  else  shall  mas- 
culine humanity  atone  for  past  neglect  ?  How  assure  to 
future  generations  their  right  to  a  share  in  the  fruits 
of  woman's  genius  at  its  best?  This  is  only  another 
step  in  the  interpretation  of  what  is  meant  by  a  real 
democracy. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Make  a  study  of  the  qualities  of  woman's  art  in  each 
of  these  three  fields  and  compare  these  qualities  with 
a  view  to  discovering  any  peculiar  qualities  which 
the  three  groups  share  in  common. 

Undertake  a  fuller  study  of  woman's  accomplishment  in 
musical  composition. 

Compare  and  contrast  women  and  men  as  interpreters 
of  music,  and  also  of  the  drama. 

Make  a  fuller  study  of  woman's  instrumental  interpre- 
tation and  rendering  of  musical  composition. 

References 

"Art  Schools  for  Girls."     Literary  Digest.     46:1010-1. 
Beaux,  C.    "Why  the  Girl  Art  Student  Fails."    Harper's 

Bazaar,  47:221. 
Brinton,  C.     "Women  Painters  in  America."     Woman's 

Home  Companion,  38:18-19. 
Dale,  Alan.     "Woman  Playwrights."     Delineator,  Feb. 

1917. 
Delineator,  79:437.     "Famous  Women  in  Art  and  Let- 


208 


WOMEN  IN  ART,  MUSIC  AND  DRAMA 

Gaul,  H.  B.    "Woman  In  Music."    Musician,  21  :i43. 

"Women  in  Orchestra."    Literary  Digest,  52  :504-5. 

Perrett,  A.  R.  "Adventures  in  Practical  Esthetics.'' 
Bookman,  43  1286-9. 

Pollock,  A.  "Woman  in  the  Theatre."  Harper's  Week- 
ly, 61 :2sy. 

Putnam,  A.  "Violin  Playing  as  a  Profession  for  Wom- 
en."   Musician,  15:57. 

Stover,  H.  J.  "Women  as  Orchestra  Players  as  Illus- 
trated by  the  Fadettes."    Musician,  15:511. 

Thompson,  V.  Boldini,  "Painter  of  Gowns  and  Souls."' 
Cosmopolitan,  53  :48o-4. 

Upton,  G.  P.     "Woman  in  Music."     Chicago,  1892. 

Women  in  Art.    Int.  Studio,  49:213-17. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

woman's  contribution  to  learning  and 
literature 

Havelock  Ellis  very  aptly  says  that  "Women 
have  not  so  often  been  eminent  as  men  for  the  very 
good  reason  that  they  have  not  so  often  had  occasion 
to  be  eminent."  There  is  nothing  in  history  more 
difficult  for  a  liberal  minded  American  to  compre- 
hend than  the  attitude  which  the  men  of  Christendom 
have  assumed  towards  women.  Throughout  all  Eu- 
rope except  Italy  the  achievements  of  women  have 
failed  to  receive  that  recognition  accorded  to  men. 
The  academies  not  only  for  the  encouragement  of  art 
but  those  for  the  encouragement  of  science  also  have 
excluded  women  of  great  attainments,  women  who 
have  contributed  richly  to  learning  and  to  human  wel- 
fare through  science. 

In  Greece  we  have  found  the  hetaerae  recognized 
in  literature  and  philosophy  on  an  equality  with  men. 
Thus  the  Greeks  produced  a  Sappho  ranking  with 
Homer  and  everywhere  heralded  as  a  great  poet.    As 

2IO 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

Mozans^  puts  it, — "They  [the  Greeks]  had  proved 
that,  under  favorable  conditions,  there  was  essentially 
no  difference  between  the  male  and  female  intellect, 
and  that  eenius  knows  no  sex."  Aspasia  of  Miletus 
ranked  with  men  of  Athens  who  were  greatest  in  learn- 
ing and  philosophy.  Companion  to  the  greatest  men 
of  Greece,  her  discourses  on  science  and  philosophy 
were  listened  to  respectfully  by  the  most  learned  and 
profound.  Hypatia  of  Alexandria  was  another 
Greek  woman  of  great  learning  and  a  powerful  teacher 
of  men.  In  the  earlier  period  again  we  find  the  golden 
age  of  Greek  women  as  writers  of  poetry.  Second 
only  to  Sappho  were  Gorgo,  Andromeda  and  Corinna. 
Others  of  the  same  period  were  Telesilla  and  Praxilla. 
Tradition  has  it  that  in  a  single  century  there  appeared 
in  Hellas,  a  country  whose  entire  population  is  out- 
numbered by  a  fair  sized  modern  city,  as  many  as 
seventy-six  women  poets. 

We  do  not  usually  think  of  ancient  Rome  as  a  seat 
of  learning.  Yet  Cornelia,  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi 
and  their  principal  teacher,  was  a  woman  great  in 
learning  and  nobility  of  character.  And  that  other 
Cornelia,  wife  of  Pompey,  also  a  woman  of  learning 
and  wisdom,  had  no  small  part  in  winning  renown  for 
her  husband.    To  the  influence  of  his  cultured  mother, 

^  H.  J.  Mozans,  "Woman  in  Science."  New  York,  Appletons, 
1913. 

211 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Aurelia,  Julius  Caesar  was  also  a  great  debtor.  In- 
deed it  is  a  well  known  fact  of  history  that  many- 
women  of  Rome  shared  freely  with  their  husbands 
in  affairs  of  state  and  their  influence  was  greatly  felt 
and  appreciated.  A  little  later  we  find  Jerome  ably 
assisted  and  encouraged  by  Paula  and  Eustochium  in 
the  preparation  of  the  Vulgate  Scriptures. 

In  the  period  of  history  known  as  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  through  the  nuns  of  the  convents  no  less  than 
the  monks  that  learning  was  preserved  to  the  world. 
These  devoted  women  were  often  mistresses  of  many 
languages.  Among  them  there  developed  several  noted 
for  their  mathematical  learning,  for  astronomy,  medi- 
cine, and  philosophy.  Through  their  teaching  the  Eu- 
ropean women  of  the  higher  classes  received  their 
education.  In  several  instances  the  study  of  the  nuns 
extended  into  the  realm  of  research  and  discovery.  It 
was  the  nun  Hilda  of  Whitby,  in  England,  noted  as  a 
scholar  and  as  a  patroness  of  learning,  whose  influence 
over  Caedmon  caused  him  to  undertake  and  accom- 
plish his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Anglo- 
Saxon,  thus  laying  a  foundation  in  the  best  of  form 
for  the  English  language. 

It  was  this  same  Hilda  who  undertook  the  estab- 
lishment of  teaching  monasteries  for  women  on  the 
continent.  And  the  nun  Lioba  labored  effectively  with 
Boniface  for  the  establishment  of  regular  training  for 

212 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

teachers  in  Germany.  Probably  the  most  learned  of 
all,  or  at  least  one  who  contributed  most  to  the  cause 
of  letters,  was  Hroswitha,  the  nun  of  Gandershime, 
who  wrote  history  and  gathered  up  and  preserved 
many  of  the  ancient  legends,  and  whose  greatest  work 
was  her  dramatic  writing  in  which  she  represents  the 
transition  from  heathendom  to  Christianity.  Other 
German  nuns  of  note  were  St.  Hildegard,  "Sybil  of 
the  Rhine,"  and  Herrad,  the  gifted  abbess  of  Hohen- 
burg.  The  Anglo-Saxon  nuns  were  most  noteworthy 
of  all  for  their  influence  upon  learning. 

Italy  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  very  rich  in  its  learned 
women;  and  this  condition  extended  well  toward  the 
close  of  the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  There  were 
writers  of  note,  great  teachers,  lecturers  on  law,  medi- 
cal lecturers  and  practitioners,  including  such  names 
as  Bettina  Gozzadina  and  Novella  d' Andrea,  famous 
for  their  learning  and  ability  in  law.  Perhaps  if 
Shakespeare  had  not  seen  too  much  through  English 
eyes  and  had  felt  unrestrained  by  popular  social  stand- 
ards he  might  have  made  his  Portia  a  veritable  Doctor 
of  Law  without  seeming  to  disguise  her  womanhood. 

During  the  Italian  Renaissance  there  appeared  nu- 
merous other  women  of  note.  Foremost  among  these 
was  Tarquinia  Molza  of  whom  it  is  said  that  "Not 
only  did  she  excel  in  poetry  and  in  the  fine  arts,  but 
she  also  had  a  rare  knowledge  of  astronomy  and  math- 

213 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

ematics,  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew."  On  account  of 
her  attainments  the  Roman  Senate  conferred  upon  her 
the  especial  honor  of  Roman  citizenship  and  made  it 
transmissible,  in  perpetuity,  to  her  descendants.  Doro- 
tea  Bucca  was  another  woman  who  distinguished  her- 
self as  lecturer  on  medicine  in  the  University  of  Bo- 
logna. So  great  was  her  ability  that  she  attracted  stu- 
dents from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Out  of  about  fifty 
women  poets  of  this  period  appear  three  as  especially 
deserving  notice  here.  These  were  Gaspara  Stampa, 
Veronica  Gambara,  and  Vittoria  Colonna. 

Such  is  the  record  of  women  in  a  country  where 
they  were  free  to  enter  and  achieve  in  the  fields  of 
learning  and  letters  as  was  the  case  in  Italy.  No 
where  else  in  mediaeval  Europe  did  there  prevail  such 
freedom.  And  women  were  free  in  Greece,  except 
that  this  did  not  apply  to  wives  and  mothers.  Per- 
haps the  saddest  comment  on  Greek  civilization  is  this, 
that  only  the  women  who  were  unmarried  could  be- 
come the  real  companions  of  men  and  share  equally 
with  them  in  the  learning  of  the  time.  The  nuns  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  untrammeled  by  wedlock,  were  also 
free,  though  in  a  different  way.  It  was  her  freedom 
from  social  bondage  that  enabled  woman  to  advance 
in  learning  in  ancient  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages; 
and  it  is  freedom  that  is  giving  to  the  modem  world 
its  great  women. 

214 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

In  France  there  was  no  such  freedom  for  women. 
All  the  noted  French  academies  were  closed  to  her. 
It  was  through  the  influence  of  the  satirical  writings 
of  Moliere  and  Rousseau,  largely,  that  woman's  ef- 
forts at  learning  and  letters  were  suppressed.  With 
writers  of  such  power  hurling  their  shafts  of  ridicule 
against  every  effort  of  woman  to  achieve,  there  could 
be  little  semblance  of  freedom.  The  few  who  essayed 
to  express  themselves  usually  did  so  under  cover  of  a 
pseudonym.  There  were  some  exceptions  to  this  gen- 
eral suppression  of  learned  women,  but  chiefly  before 
Moliere  wrote  his  Les  Femmes  Savantes  and  Les  Pre- 
cieuses  Ridicules.  The  most  notable  of  these  was  prob- 
ably Madame  Dacier.  It  is  said  of  her  that  "there  was 
not  a  man  in  Europe  who  did  not  respect  her  judg- 
ment in  matters  of  literature  and  culture."  Of  those 
who  later  braved  the  ridicule  of  Moliere,  and  whose 
works  still  survive,  was  Madame  de  Stael,  a  most  fa- 
mous woman  of  the  time  and  noted  especially  as  a 
scholar  in  the  Greek  language.  Holland,  too,  produced 
her  Anna  Maria  van  Schurman  in  the  face  of  a  similar 
handicap. 

In  England  and  Germany  there  are  no  noted  women 
of  the  Renaissance  period.  The  destruction  of  the 
monasteries  by  Henry  VIII  took  from  the  women  of 
England  their  only  means  to  an  education;  while  the 
writings   of    Milton,    though   quite   the   opposite   of 

2IS 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Moliere's  in  character,  produced  a  similar  effect  on  the 
efforts  of  women  in  the  field  of  letters,  opposing,  as 
they  did,  their  liberal  education. 

The  world  has  heard  much  in  modern  times  about 
the  general  inability  of  women  in  dealing  with  ab- 
stract knowledge.  In  the  organization  and  develop- 
ment of  statecraft  great  men  have  not  hesitated  to 
quote  the  Greek  philosophers,  Aristotle  and  Plato. 
But  when  it  comes  to  a  Platonian  pronouncement  as 
to  the  educational  capabilities  and  needs  of  women 
they  seem  not  to  have  read  Plato  at  all.  For  it  is  Plato 
who  says  in  his  Lazvs :  ''Women  ought  to  share,  as  far 
as  possible,  in  education  and  in  other  ways  with  men. 
For  consider : — if  women  do  not  share  in  their  whole 
life  with  men,  then  they  must  have  some  other  order 
of  life."  Now  how  are  we  ever  to  hope  for  a  realiza- 
tion of  our  dream  of  democracy  without  heeding  this 
principle  of  philosophy  and  admitting  women  to  all 
learning  and  all  councils  of  state?  Certainly  it  can 
not  come  about  by  making  of  the  mothers  of  the  race 
a  class  with  another  "order  of  life." 

Lest  there  be  those  who  still  remain  skeptical  as  to 
woman's  ability  to  deal  with  the  abstract  let  us  follow 
her  career  a  little  farther  in  the  field  of  learning.  Ref- 
erence has  already  been  m.ade  to  Hypatia  of  the 
Alexandrian  school  of  philosophy.  She  was  the  great- 
est teacher  of  mathematics  of  her  time.     It  was  she 

216 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

who  first  introduced  the  teaching  of  algebra  while  she 
taught  geometry  and  astronomy.  She  wrote  three 
treatises  on  mathematics  all  of  which  would  have  done 
credit  to  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  ancient  times. 
These  were  on  the  Arethmetica  of  Diophantus,  the 
Conic  Sections  of  Apollonius,  and  an  Astronomical 
Canon.  She  is  also  credited  with  the  invention  of  sev- 
eral pieces  of  scientific  apparatus.  After  her  death  the 
science  of  mathematics  remained  stationary  for  many 
centuries. 

Coming  down  to  the  seventeenth  century  A.  D.  we 
find  Heloise,  a  pupil  of  Abelard,  inferior  only  to  her 
teacher  in  philosophy,  theology  and  mathematics.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  there  appears  Maria  Gaetana 
Agnesi  of  Milan  who  was  not  only  familiar  with  seven 
languages  but  who  wrote  a  most  learned  two  volume 
treatise  on  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus  which 
was  soon  translated  in  French,  and  which,  fifty-two 
years  after  its  oublication,  was  found  worthy  of  trans- 
lation into  English.  Later  still  appeared  Anna  Bar- 
bara Reinhardt,  of  Switzerland,  a  woman  talented  in 
mathematics;  Sophie  Germain,  of  France,  treated  as 
an  equal  by  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  her  day; 
Mary  Somerville,  of  Scotland,  who  prepared  a  trans- 
lation and  commentary  on  Laplace's  Mechanique 
Celeste  without  neglecting  the  duties  of  motherhood 
and  the  home.    Her  last  work,  a  treatise  On  Molecular 

217 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

and  Microscopic  Science  was  completed  when  she  was 
nearly  ninety  years  old. 

Of  like  note  and  capability  were  Janet  Taylor,  au- 
thor of  valuable  works  on  navigation  and  nautical  as- 
tronomy; Sonya  Kovalevsky,  a  Russian  woman  held 
to  be  greatest  of  all  women  scientists.  There  are  also 
names  of  women  noted  in  astronomy.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  Sophia  Brahe,  a  sister  of  Tycho  Brahe, 
attained  celebrity  for  her  work  in  astronomy;  in  the 
twelfth  century  Saint  Hildegard  had  taught  that  the 
sun  was  center  of  the  firmament  and  held  in  place  the 
stars  that  gravitated  around  it;  Marie  Cunitz,  of  Sile- 
sia, mistress  of  seven  languages,  had  written  a  book 
on  Urania  Propitia;  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Mar-, 
quise  du  Chatelet  had  translated  into  French  Newton's 
Principia;  Miss  Caroline  Herschel  had  discovered 
eight  comets  while  she  faithfully  and  efficiently  as- 
sisted her  brother  Sir  William  Herschel ;  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  Maria  Mitchell,  an  American  woman, 
made  several  important  astronomical  discoveries  and 
was  employed  in  the  government  service  on  the  Coast 
Survey.  Miss  Mitchell  also  became  Professor  of  As- 
tronomy at  Vassar  College. 

There  are  other  and  still  more  recent  names  of 
notable  women  in  this  field:  Caterina  Scarpellini,  of 
Rome;  Dorothea  Klumpke  and  Mrs.  W.  Fleming,  of 
America,  together  with  a  galaxy  of  brilliant  young 

218 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

women  of  the  Harvard  Observatory  staff.  Many  oth- 
ers also  in  America  hold  important  places  as  profes- 
sors and  as  assistants  in  observatory  work.  The  last 
is  true  also  of  European  astronomical  service.  Nor 
should  we  neglect  to  make  mention  of  those  who  have 
contributed  to  this  branch  of  learning  by  giving  finan- 
cial aid  to  the  work. 

In  Physics  and  Chemistry  woman  has  also  achieved 
success.  A  noted  eighteenth  century  scholar  and 
teacher  of  Italy  was  Laura  Maria  Catarina  Bassi 
whose  special  study  was  in  physics.  Mary  Somerville, 
of  Scotland,  already  mentioned  for  her  astronomical 
labors,  was  also  a  scholar  in  physics.  It  should  be 
remembered  in  this  connection  that  only  during  the 
present  generation  have  the  educational  possibilities 
of  woman  been  such  as  to  admit  of  any  important  ad- 
vancement in  such  fields  of  learning.  Put  with  this 
the  comparative  lateness  of  the  establishment  of  higher 
institutions  of  learning  open  to  women  in  the  United 
States,  and  also  the  fact  that  high  schools  open  to  girls 
did  not  exist  in  this  country  until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  we  have  accounted  for  the 
dearth  of  women  who  have  achieved  recognition  in 
science. 

In  the  study  of  chemistry  we  first  note  the  work  of 
Madame  Lavoisier,  wife  of  the  eminent  French  chem- 
ist.   Her  work  was  chiefly  as  assistant  to  her  husband. 

219 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Among  other  services  in  this  capacity  she  translated 
several  important  works  for  him  and  later  published 
his  memoirs.  In  America,  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  en- 
tered the  field  of  chemical  research  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  was  she  who  first  es- 
tablished courses  in  sanitary  chemistry.  This  was 
in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  She 
also  made  the  first  application  of  chemistry  to  the 
science  of  nutrition  and  the  study  of  foods. 

At  about  the  same  time  that  Mrs.  Richards  was  be- 
ginning her  work  Marie  Klodowska,  of  Poland,  bet- 
ter known  to  the  world  as  Madame  Curie  through  her 
collaboration  with  her  French  husband  Pierre  Curie, 
was  coming  into  note.  Together,  through  years  of 
patient  labor,  they  discovered  radium;  and  to  Mme. 
Curie  belongs  the  great  distinction  of  having  been  the 
prime  mover  in  this  great  achievement.  She  was  the 
first  woman  to  receive  an  invitation  to  lecture  in  the 
Sorbonne.  The  lives  of  these  two  pioneers  in  the 
field  of  scientific  discovery  make  one  of  the  greatest 
romances  of  the  modern  scientific  world.  But  not- 
withstanding the  greatness  of  Mme.  Curie's  contribu- 
tion she  was  denied  admission  to  the  roll  of  immortals 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Science — ^because  she  was 
only  a  woman. 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
there  appeared  at  Bologna  a  woman  learned  in  human 

220 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

anatomy.  This  was  Anna  Morandi  Manzolini.  It 
was  she  who  first  made  anatomical  models  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstrating  in  connection  with  her 
lectures  on  this  subject.  A  century  earlier,  in  France, 
the  Baroness  de  Beausoleil  had  become  noted  for  her 
studies  in  mineralogy.  About  the  same  time  Maria 
Sibylla  Merian  of  Germany  was  pursuing  her  special 
study  of  plants  and  insects,  a  work  which  contributed 
much  of  value  to  biological  science.  Later  on  Jose- 
phine Kablick,  a  Bohemian,  became  a  worthy  success 
sor  to  Maria  Merian  in  the  pursuit  of  plant  studies  and 
paleontology.  - 

Other  names  of  interest  in  the  development  of 
biological  research  were  those  of  Amalie  Dietrich,  a 
German  woman  who  spent  twelve  years  in  the  study 
of  Australian  flora;  Sophia  Pereyaslawzewa,  a  Rus- 
sian woman,  who  made  extensive  studies  of  marine 
forms  of  life  and  published  numerous  valuable  records 
of  her  work ;  Eleanor  Ormorod,  of  France,  who  in  her 
study  of  economic  entomology  rendered  great  service 
in  fighting  plant  pests.  Besides  these  there  is  a  long 
list  of  American  contributors  to  the  biological  sciences. 

In  the  field  of  travel  and  exploration  the  most  nota- 
ble names  among  women  are  those  of  Ida  Pfeiffer,  an 
Austrian  traveler,  geographer  and  ethnologist;  Mary 
H.  Kingsley,  traveler  and  explorer  in  the  interests  of 
science;  and  Madame  Condreon,  a  famous  French  ex- 

221 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

plorer.  A  very  respectable  list  of  women  of  notable 
achievement  in  archaeology  is  also  to  be  found. 

Mention  has  several  times  been  made  of  woman  as 
gifted  in  the  medicinal  arts.  This  was  one  of  the 
functions  of  primitive  woman.  Among  the  great 
women  of  Italian  civilization  we  have  found  a  num- 
ber of  those  who  rendered  humanity  great  service  in 
the  teaching  and  practice  of  medicine.  In  the  Euro- 
pean Middle  Ages  the  practice  of  medicine  was  largely 
in  the  hands  of  the  nuns;  but  with  the  passing  of 
monastic  control  the  woman  physician  practically  dis- 
appeared. Not  until  quite  recent  times  did  women  ap- 
pear again  in  this  department  of  social  service. 

In  the  United  States  Dr.  Elizabeth  Blackwell  was 
the  first  woman  physician  with  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
It  was  she  who  founded  the  New  York  Infirmary  and 
College  for  Women.  It  was  Dr.  Blackwell's  work 
which  opened  the  way  for  women  to  the  medical  pro- 
fession not  only  in  America  but  also  in  Europe.  Dr. 
Sophia  Jex-Blake  was  the  pioneer  woman  physician 
in  England. 

There  remains  one  other  test  that  should  be  ap- 
plied while  we  are  considering  woman's  capacity  for 
abstract  thinking.  What  of  her  inventive  ability? 
Again  we  refer  to  the  excellent  study  by  H.  J. 
Mozans.     According  to  that  writer's  figures  we  find 

222 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

that  the  first  patent  issued  to  a  woman  in  the  United 
States  was  to  Mary  Kies  in  the  year  1809.  For  the 
decade  following  1841  fourteen  patents  were  issued 
to  women;  and  from  1851  to  1861  twenty-eight  pat- 
ents were  issued.  For  the  next  decade  the  number  in- 
creased to  forty-one,  and  seems  to  have  been  increas- 
ing regularly  and  rapidly  since  that  time.  The  first 
government  report  of  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office,  pub- 
lished in  1888,  credited  women  with  nearly  one  thou- 
sand inventions.  Nor  were  these  inventions  limited 
to  affairs  wholly  feminine.  Many  of  them  are  of 
prime  importance  to  manufacturing  industries  and  to 
commerce  and  transportation. 

What  further  evidence  should  anyone  require  as 
to  the  mental  equality  of  woman  with  man?  It  is 
true  that  the  numbers  of  those  who  have  achieved 
renown  in  intellectual  fields  is  not  as  great  as  that  of 
men.  But  this  is  readily  offset  by  barriers  to  her 
progress  placed  by  men,  not  the  least  of  which  has 
been  the  neglect  of  her  education.  It  is  fully  time 
that  men  square  themselves  and  give  to  women,  in 
every  avenue  of  service  and  endeavor,  full  oppor- 
tunity for  the  development  of  all  their  latent  abilities. 

Thus  far  we  have  referred  only  incidentally  to 
woman's  contribution  to  literature.  We  have  found 
her  thus  contributing  in  ancient  Greece,  in  Rome,  in 
Italy  of  Mediaeval  times  and  during  the  Renaissance, 

223 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

in  the  monasteries  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  discussing 
the  drama  in  Chapter  XIII  we  have  found  a  few 
prominent  names  of  women  who  have  been  success- 
ful playwrights.  There  is,  however,  a  much  larger 
field  for  women  in  modern  literary  production.  In 
all  ages  and  all  lands  women  have  courted  the  poetic 
muse  from  Sappho  to  the  present  day.  But  the  one 
literary  type  which  she  has  used  with  great  skill  and 
oftenest  is  fiction. 

Among  English  writers  of  note  we  find  the  names 
of  many  well  known  to  readers  and  students  of  liter- 
ature. There  is  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  in  poetry. 
In  the  realm  of  fiction  the  names  of  Frances  Bumey, 
Maria  Edgeworth,  Jane  Austen,  Charlotte  and  Emily 
Bronte,  George  Eliot,  Mrs.  Gaskell,  Harriet  Martineau, 
Dinah  Maria  Muloch  Craik,  and  Mrs.  Humphry 
Ward.  Surely  this  is  a  fairly  good  showing  for  the 
women  of  England,  and  nearly  all  within  a  century. 
And  the  character  of  their  contributions  is  such  that 
we  may  all  share  in  the  honor  they  have  conferred 
upon  modem  literature  and  the  English  language  as 
a  medium  for  the  portrayal  of  human  character  and 
motives. 

Not  less  significant  is  the  long  list  of  Ameri- 
can writers.  In  the  realm  of  poetry  we  find  Alice  and 
Phoebe  Cary,  Lydia  H.  Sigoumey,  Margaret  Deland, 
Mary  Mapes  Dodge,  Margaret  E.  Sangster,  and  Ella 

224 


LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE 

Wheeler  Wilcox.  To  these  must  be  added  Julia  Ward 
Howe  immortalized  in  a  song  which  the  nation  loves. 
In  the  realm  of  fiction  we  find  again  Margaret  De- 
land,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  Catherine  Maria  Sedg- 
wick, Amelia  Barr,  Frances  Hodgson  Burnett,  Mary 
H.  Catherwood,  Gail  Hamilton  (Mary  A.  Dodge), 
Helen  Fiske  Jackson,  Charles  Egbert  Craddock  (Miss 
Murfree),  Harriet  Prescott  SpofiFord,  Elizabeth  Stew- 
art Phelps  Ward,  and  many  others. 

There  are  also  a  goodly  number  of  story  writers 
whose  productions  are  of  a  high  literary  order.  Such 
are  Louisa  May  Alcotf s  stories  for  young  people. 
Mary  Mapes  Dodge  is  another  writer  in  this  class. 
The  short  stories  of  Alice  Brown,  Rose  Terry  Cooke 
and  Mary  Roberts  Reinhart  readily  give  them  a  place 
here.  Nor  should  we  fail  to  mention  the  fine  editorial 
and  journalistic  service  rendered  by  such  women  as 
Lydia  Maria  Child,  Sarah  Josepha  Hale,  Margaret 
Fuller  Ossoli,  and  Margaret  E.  Sangster. 

The  present  day  presents  a  different  type  of  bril- 
liant writers  among  women — the  women  who  are  lead- 
ing in  the  struggle  for  the  political  and  social  freedom 
of  their  sex.  In  both  England  and  America,  not  to 
mention  other  nations,  there  have  been  some  epoch- 
making  productions  of  political  and  sociological  char- 
acter.    Such  are  the  writings  of  Mrs.  Fawcett,  Mrs. 

225 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Havelock  Ellis,  the  Countess  of  Warwick,  Jane  Ad- 
dams,  Olive  Schreiner  and  Mrs.  Archibald  Colquhoun. 


Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

Study  woman's  part  in  learning  at  the  University  of 

Bologna. 
Make  a  special  study  of  learning  among  the  nuns  of  the 

middle  ages. 
Investigate  the  extent  to  which  women  in  America  are 

now  holding  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy, 

and  in  what  fields  of  learning,  chiefly,  the  degree  is 

earned. 
Study  women  as  poets  and  compare  their  work  with 

that  of  men  who  have  stood  high  in  the  same  field. 
Review  the  work  of  women  as  writers  on  political  and 

social  affairs. 

References 

Ellis,  Havelock.  *'The  Mind  of  Woman."  Atlantic, 
118:366. 

George,  W.  L.  "Notes  on  the  Intelligence  of  Women." 
Atlantic,  116:721. 

Mozans,  H.  J.  "Woman  in  Science."  New  York,  Ap- 
pletons,  1 91 3. 

Spofford,  Mrs.  Harriet  Prescott.  "A  Little  Book  of 
Friends."     Boston,  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1917. 

Whitmore,  Cora  H.  "Woman's  Work  in  English  Fic- 
tion."   New  York,  Putnams,  1910. 


CHAPTER  XV 


MOTHERHOOD 


To  feel  the  sudden  thrill  and  start 
Quiver  the  new  strings  of  my  heart ; 
To  feel  a  life  within  my  life 
Grasp  its  beginning  and  grow  rife. 
While  God's  ineffable  new  grace 
Proves  its  existence  in  my  face; 
To  feel  the  red  blush-roses  glide 
At  every  moment  in  my  side; 
To  know  a  love  without  reply, 
And  know  that  it  can  never  die; 
To  lie  awake  night  after  night 
And  wonder  at  the  strange,  new  light : 
To  whisper  to  the  listening  earth : 
"I  am  a  mother ;  know  my  worth !" 
To  f par.  my  power  to  mold  the  man 
As  o^ly  she  who  bears  him  can; 
To  number  each  departing  sun 
And  count  the  mornings  one  by  one, 
Impatient  for  my  Christmas  morn, 
When  from  my  womb  a  child  is  born, — 
(What  harm  if  when  he  break  the  mold, 
He  leave  my  body  still  and  cold? 
Shall  I  not  live  within  his  breath? 
Can  I  be  more  apart  from  death?) 
To  wonder  at  the  mighty  love 
22y 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Which  could  almost,  like  that  above, 
Make  or  unmake  a  universe. 
And  prove  a  blessing  or  a  curse; 
To  tremble  at  my  power  for  good 
And  evil — thij  is  motherhood.^ 

Thus  the  poet  of  today  would  idealize  motherhood. 
In  some  such  vein  poets  of  all  ages  have  sought  to 
give  verbal  expression  to  man's  estimate  of  woman  as 
the  mother  of  men.  No  man,  indeed,  who  has  medi- 
tated on  the  meaning  of  human  life  can  have  failed  to 
catch  some  comprehension  of  the  greatness  of  the  mys- 
tery of  birth  and  the  peculiar  quality  which  the  ex- 
perience of  maternity  imparts  to  woman,  thus  set- 
ting her  in  a  class  by  herself.  As  oi;e  writer  has  said : 
"Whatever  else  we  may  relinquish  as  the  world  grows 
older,  whatever  else  we  may  acquire,  it  is  certain  that 
we  shall  never  lose  that  reverence  which  a  mother  in- 
spires in  our  heart." 

Most  of  us,  all,  indeed,  except  the  unfortunate  few 
the  lives  of  whose  mothers  have  gone  out  with  their 
coming  or  soon  after,  naturally  think  of  home  as  a 
place  with  which  our  memories  of  mother  are  always 
closely  linked.  And  the  best  homes  are  the  mother- 
made  homes.  It  has  been  aptly  said  that  a  home  with- 
out love  is  not  really  a  home  but  only  a  house.  And 
the  most  enduring,  the  most  beautiful,  the  most  self- 

*  Thomas  F.  Bouve  in  Century  Magazine,  73:231. 

228 


MOTHERHOOD 

sacrificing  love  is  mother-love.  It  possesses  this 
peculiar  quality  that  it  reaches  out  not  only  to  the 
mother's  child,  but,  when  unquenched  by  a  hostile 
atmosphere,  it  extends  to  all  in  the  home  and  even  to 
the  community  as  well. 

The  character  of  the  home  creates  the  atmosphere 
in  which  the  mother  character  develops.  The  material 
condition  of  the  occupants,  the  character  of  the  house 
and  its  furnishings,  while  important  as  far  as  health 
and  general  sanitary  conditions  are  concerned,  are 
cKtherwise  really  matters  of  secondary  importance. 
The  humble  cottage  home  with  simple  furnishings  and 
"homely  fare"  where  love  dwells  has  all  the  essential 
qualities  of  home.  Robert  Bums  has  stamped  this 
truth  indelibly  on  the  hearts  of  men. 

At  length  his  lonely  cot  appears  in  view. 

Beneath  the  shelter  of  an  aged  tree; 
The  expectant  wee  things  toddlin'  stacher  thro* 

To  meet  their  dad,  wi'  flichterin'  noise  and  glee. 
His  wee  bit  ingle,  blinkin'  bonnily. 

His  clean  hearth-stane,  his  thriftie  wifie's  smile, 
The  lisping  infant  prattling  on  his  knee, 

Does  a'  his  weary  kiaugh  and  care  beguile, 
And  makes  him  quite  forget  his  labor  and  his  toil. 

In  these  few  lines  Burns  has  pictured  all  the  essential 
elements  concomitant  to  the  kind  of  home  that  never 
fails  to  yield  a  friendly  atmosphere  for  the  mother- 
hood of  a  true  woman. 

229 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  homes  where  most  of 
the  essential  qualities  of  motherhood  that  unfold  after 
maternity  are  smothered  and  stultified  by  an  attempt 
to  provide  for  the  mothering  of  the  children  by  a 
species  of  proxy.  Such  is  the  situation  where  some 
other  interest  in  life  is  permitted  to  usurp  the  place 
of  the  mother's  love  for  home  and  children.  Out  of 
such  a  condition  there  is  almost  sure  to  be  created  an 
atmosphere  hostile  to  the  realization  of  a  "mother- 
made  home." 

What  does  motherhood  mean  to  a  woman  ?  First  of 
all  it  is  her  response  to  the  deep  urge  and  call  of  a 
fundamental  element  in  her  life.  It  is  that  quality 
imparted  to  her  by  the  Creator  by  which  she  becomes 
the  final  arbiter  of  the  future  of  the  race.  As  Madame 
Korany  has  put  it:  "As  the  mother  of  men  she 
stamps  indelibly  upon  them  her  own  weakness  or  tal- 
ent, health  or  disease."  Woman,  whatever  her  name 
or  station  in  life,  knows  that  within  her  abides  the 
possibility  not  only  of  building  such  a  home  as  we 
have  characterized  above,  but  of  molding  a  life — 
several  lives — that  may  mean  to  the  state  even  as  the 
Gracchi  meant  to  the  city  of  Rome. 

It  means  also  suflFering  and  self-abnegation  such  as 
men  know  not  nor  few  can  understand  and  appreci- 
ate. We  have  seen  that  women  have  powers  of  in- 
tellect and  emotion,  of  thought  and  execution  equiva- 

230 


MOTHERHOOD 

lent  to  those  of  man.  But  to  become  the  mother  of  a 
family  of  children  means  travail  of  both  body  and 
soul  to  a  woman  who  has  discovered  her  powers  of. 
mind  and  longs  to  develop  them  to  the  utmost  in  some 
chosen  field.  For  her,  when  she  has  elected  to  respond 
to  the  primal  call,  there  will  indeed  be  opportunity  to 
express  herself  and  to  serve  such  as  no  man  can  ever 
know;  but  she  must  pay  the  inevitable  price  of  the 
chooser  of  a  way  in  life.  She  can  scarcely  expect 
to  find  success  in  two  great  fields  where  only  special- 
ists can  hope  to  win  true  and  lasting  success.  Yet 
given  a  woman  who,  at  marriage,  has  a  well-developed 
and  well-trained  mind  and  who  is  physically  soimd, 
and  there  may  be  a  time,  after  her  children  are  through 
the  home  school  when  she,  as  a  specialist  in  mother- 
hood, may  find  a  new  field  of  service.  History  is  not 
lacking  in  many  instances  of  this  kind.  And  certainly 
such  an  outcome  would  mean  that  through  the  years 
of  her  motherhood-service  to  her  children  she  should 
have  retained  her  grasp  on  some  field  of  human  in- 
terest through  which  she  might  now  express  herself. 
It  would  also  mean  that  she  must  have  come 
through  the  stress  with  sufficient  physical  strength 
to  enable  her  to  make  the  adjustment  and  take  over 
the  new  task.  We  have  used  here  the  phrase  "spe- 
cialist in  motherhood"  in  a  broader  sense  than  might 
at  first  appear.    When  Dr,  Lyman  Abbott  wrote  his 

231 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

article  on  the  ^Trofession  of  Motherhood"  ^  he  evi- 
dently intended  to  apply  the  title  somewhat  narrowly, 
as  including  only  the  rearing  of  children  in  a  thorough- 
ly efficient  manner.  Like  most  men  who  have  op- 
posed the  ballot  for  women  he  seemed  to  be  forgetting 
two  very  important  phases  of  the  problem :  first,  that 
not  nearly  all  women  are  mothers  or  ever  will  be; 
second,  that  not  all  mothers,  if  permitted  to  vote, 
would  be  likely  to  enter  public  life.  The  fact  that 
they  were  voters  would  give  them  a  motive  for  keep- 
ing up  on  the  issues  of  the  times,  and  thus  being  bet- 
ter qualified  to  guide  their  sons  and  daughters  and  for 
the  real  companionship  of  their  husbands. 

The  kind  of  specialist  we  have  in  mind  is  different 
from  that  to  which  Dr.  Abbott  referred.  There  are 
very  many  interests  in  life  which  present  problems 
the  ready  and  correct  solution  of  which  will  be  more 
sure  of  accomplishment  when  we  enlist  more  of  the 
aid  of  motherhood  experience  and  insight.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  great  to  which  this  same  mother- 
hood experience  might  not  add  something  to  enhance 
its  greatness.  We  have  referred  in  a  previous  chap- 
ter ^  to  Mrs.  Ware,  the  musician,  who  had  found  that 
motherhood  added  a  new  significance  to  her  work. 
The  reference  will  suggest  what  is  here  in  mind. 


'  Outlook,  91 :836-40. 
•Chapter  XIII,  p.  202. 


232 


MOTHERHOOD 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  experience  for  men  who 
have  spent  most  of  their  lives  in  business  or  in  pro- 
fessional service  and  have  won  a  competency  to  re- 
linquish their  business  or  professional  practice  and 
enter  upon  some  service  to  the  state  or  nation.  Why- 
should  such  a  course  be  impossible  to  women?  John 
Martin  holds  that  "to  bear  and  give  home  training  to 
three  children  will  employ  a  woman  fully  and  strenu- 
ously for  fifteen  or  twenty  years/'  *  Assuming  this 
to  be  a  fair  estimate  it  should  leave  the  woman  rela- 
tively free  at  the  age  of  forty  or  forty-five  years,  or 
with  about  an  equal  expectancy  to  that  of  her  mother- 
hood service  remaining,  if  in  good  health,  which  she 
may  devote  to  some  other  special  interest.  It  is  true 
that  she  may  not  expect  to  accomplish  in  this  new  field 
what  another,  not  a  mother,  should  do  in  thirty  or 
forty  years.  But  she  may  still  find  room  for  much 
that  is  worth  while;  and,  if  she  is  able  to  capitalize 
her  mother-experience  in  the  doing,  her  service  may 
again  be  of  very  great  value  and  consequence  to  the 
world. 

Consider  the  place  of  the  father  in  the  home  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  mother.  One  class  of  writers 
would  have  the  man  take  a  larger  share  of  the  home 
burdens  in  order  to  free  the  mother  from  part  of  the 
home  tasks  that  she  may  do  a  full  share  of  the  world's 

*  See  Survey,  35  720-2. 

233 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

work.  Another  class  would  say  that  the  man's  wage 
should  be  sufficient  to  free  the  mother  from  any  bread- 
winning  necessity.  There  is  doubtless  some  reason  to 
both  of  these  proposals.  Fathers,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
cultivate  the  companionship  of  their  children  as  much 
as  they  should  for  the  welfare  of  both.  Here  is  a 
writer,  for  instance,  who,  comparing  the  work  of  the 
mother  with  her  children  to  that  of  a  faithful  gar- 
dener says  of  the  fathers  that  they  "are  seldom  more 
than  the  florist  connected  with  the  hothouse."  In 
other  words  the  relation  of  the  father,  engrossed  in 
business  affairs,  to  his  children  is  only  casual,  while 
that  of  the  mother  is  necessarily  close  and  intimate. 

On  the  other  hand,  fathers,  too,  have  their  special 
interests  which  generally  occupy  most  of  their  time 
during  the  years  when  they  are  getting  established, 
and  on  a  sound  financial  basis.  In  a  vast  majority 
of  cases  the  situation  forbids  any  very  close  and  con- 
tinuous relationship  to  the  children  in  his  home.  It 
must  be  admitted  that  it  were  better  otherwise.  But 
that  would  involve  a  very  extensive  readjustment  of 
the  business  and  industrial  world. 

In  the  case  of  wage  earners  it  is  different.  Some- 
how matters  should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  man  who 
labors  for  wages  would  not  thereby  be  barred  from 
parenthood.  Sometimes  such  a  situation  means  neg- 
lected opportunity,  often  it  means  the  lack  of  it.    Yet 

234 

) 


MOTHERHOOD 

whatever  the  cause  the  condition  is  such  that  the  rear- 
ing of  children  in  accordance  with  those  standards 
which  make  for  good  health,  morality  and  good  citi- 
zenship is  often  impossible.  For  with  the  mother  at 
work  the  children  must  be  neglected. 

The  whole  question  leads  back  to  the  problem  of 
properly  educating  the  next  generation  of  fathers  and 
mothers,  and  the  provision  for  this  must  come  from 
the  fathers  and  mothers  of  the  present  day.  It  is  the 
old,  old,  question  of  the  stream  that  can  not  rise 
above  its  source  unless  external  force  is  applied.  We 
hear  much  about  pensions  for  mothers,  about  ma- 
ternity insurance.  But  this  does  not  go  to  the  root  of 
the  problem.  It  is  only  a  makeshift  at  best.  The  real 
remedy  is  in  more  nearly  equalized  earnings  through 
greater  ability  to  earn,  and  through  giving  to  all  labor 
a  fair  share  in  the  unearned  increment  and  the  wealth 
in  natural  resources  developed  by  the  utilization— too 
often  by  its  shameless  exploitation — of  the  labor  of 
men  who  have  no  capital  and  all  too  insufficient  train- 
ing. And  such  an  adjustment  means  more  and  bet- 
ter education  of  the  workers,  and  to  a  higher  level. 

If  the  world  once  gives  to  woman  full  freedom  and 
encouragement  equal  to  that  given  to  men  with  regard 
to  education,  public  affairs,  business  and  professional 
careers  the  standards  of  service  will  tend  to  seek  a 
higher  level.     The  woman  who  marries  will  be  more 

235 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

likely  to  assume  the  role  of  motherhood  as  her  choice 
in  life.  She  will  see  in  the  larger  life  of  full  citizen- 
ship the  opportunity  and  motive  for  keeping  informed 
as  to  the  progress  of  affairs;  and  she  will  understand 
that  thus  she  may  better  fulfill  her  obligations  to  her 
children  as  their  first  teacher.  And  when  she  has 
accomplished  the  major  task,  and  her  children  are 
grown,  she  will  be  a  light  to  her  community  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  home  and  education,  and  may  well 
represent  them  with  the  advisers  and  legislators  who 
prepare  the  laws  and  plan  their  efficient  execution. 
Having  been  a  mother  she  will  be  able  to  see  clearly  in 
many  important  matters  where  man's  vision  often  fails. 
"A  successful  mother,"  says  Anna  A.  Rogers,  "i& 
a  more  important  factor  in  a  municipality  than  any 
merely  successful  man  in  it."  ^  A  successful  mother! 
That  means  a  well  ordered  home  radiating  a  whole- 
some influence  in  the  community ;  sons  and  daughters 
well  nurtured,  strong,  well  schooled  and  capable;  a 
center  of  profound  sympathy  for  all  who  suffer  or  are 
in  need  of  help;  one  who  will  always  support  good 
schools  and  vote  right  at  every  election.  Surely  the 
writer  quoted  was  not  mistaken  in  her  evaluation,  nor 
again  when  she  says :  "Any  system  of  education  that 
fails  to  impress  upon  our  girls  the  immense  civic  value 

•"Why  American  Mothers  Fail."    Anna  A.  Rogers,  Atlantic j 
loi  1289-97. 

236 


MOTHERHOOD 

of  motherhood,  its  imposing  dignity,  its  grave  re- 
sponsibilities to  the  state,  fails  of  its  purpose." 

What  is  the  outlook  for  motherhood  in  this  strange 
time,  this  early  year  of  the  twentieth  century  ?  Nearly 
all  the  world  is  at  war.  Millions  have  died,  perhaps 
millions  more  must  be  slain,  of  the  very  flower  of  the 
world's  young  manhood.  There  will  be  many,  alas, 
to  whom  there  can  be  no  mating,  even  though  the 
primal  call  be  strong.  But  there  will  be  the  orphaned 
ones  to  be  taught  and  cared  for,  and  many  a  class- 
room once  held  by  men  to  be  filled  from  those  quali- 
fied of  the  young  women.     Will  this  sufiice? 

But  another  generation  of  young  men  are  on  the 
way,  of  young  men  and  maidens.  What  of  the  future 
for  them?  All  about  us  the  schools  are  awakening 
to  the  call,  and  our  girls  are  being  taught  and  trained 
in  things  that  must  mean  much  to  future  homes.  A 
relentless  warfare  is  being  waged  against  all  the  in- 
sidious causes  of  infant  mortality  that  have  come  with 
our  advance  in  years  as  a  nation.  States,  and  even  the 
nation,  are  clearing  the  way  for  the  larger  freedom 
of  women.  Aside  from  the  riddle  of  the  war  clouds 
the  outlook  for  twentieth  century  motherhood  is 
bright. 

What  is  to  be  the  task  of  the  American  mother  for 
the  twentieth  century?  A  very  significant  thing  is  the 
organization  of  mothers  everywhere  for  the  better 

237 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

study  and  understanding  of  their  common  problems. 
Communities,  states,  the  mothers  of  the  nation,  are  or- 
ganized into  clubs  and  congresses.  Let  us  hear  what 
one  of  the  mothers  says  before  one  of  these  con- 
gresses about  the  American  mothers'  task : 

The  attitude  of  the  twentieth  century  mother  is  to 
declare  that  the  love  and  devotion  of  motherhood  are 
never  to  be  impaired;  but  to  them  must  be  added  the 
study  of  how  best  to  exercise  them.  The  twentieth  cen- 
tury mother  must  be  skilled  in  the  physical  care  of  her 
children.  She  must  know  the  chemical  values  and  suit- 
able combinations  of  foods ;  the  homely  virtues  of  clean- 
liness and  order;  the  need  of  rest  and  exercise;  the 
precautions  to  be  observed  in  school  life  and  in  adoles- 
cence. She  must  realize  that  there  are  critics  higher 
than  Mrs.  Grundy;  and  standards  higher  than  social 
prestige  and  wealth,  if  luxury  and  ease  are  not  to  be- 
come an  insidious  disease.® 

When  such  counsel  as  this  is  becoming  general,  and 
when  mothers  are  vying  with  their  daughters  in  school 
in  their  effort  to  learn  the  latest  truths  of  science  as 
they  apply  to  the  great  fundamental  problems  of  home 
and  maternity,  the  future  does  not  seem  so  threaten- 
ing. Let  us  hope  with  Mrs.  Schoff  "that  the  love  and 
devotion  of  motherhood  are  never  to  be  impaired." 
For  what  would  this  old  world  be  worth  if  this  last 

•Mrs.     Frederick     Schoff.    "The    Task     of     the     American 
Mother."    Independent,  55-35-7' 

238 


MOTHERHOOD 

stronghold  of  the  American  home  were  to  be  lost, 
never  to  be  regained? 

The  theme  is  too  great  for  the  pen  of  man.  Only 
the  soul  of  the  poet  can  rise,  even  measurably,  to  its 
mystic  grandeur.  As  at  the  beginning,  so  at  the  close 
of  this  chapter  let  us  invoke  the  poet's  vision. 

If  I  were  hanged  on  the  highest  hill. 
Mother  o'  mine,  O  mother  o'  mine ! 

I  know  whose  love  would  follow  me  still. 
Mother  o'  mine,  O  mother  o'  mine  1 

If  I  were  drowned  in  the  deepest  sea. 
Mother  o'  mine,  O  mother  o'  mine! 

I  know  whose  tears  would  come  down  to  me. 
Mother  o'  mine,  O  mother  o*  mine! 

If  I  were  damned  of  body  and  soul, 
I  know  whose  prayers  would  make  me  whole. 
Mother  o'  mine,  O  mother  o'  mine !  "^ 


References 

Rogers,  Anna  A.  "Why  American  Mothers  Fail."  At- 
lantic ^  1 01 :289-97. 

Schoff,  Mrs.  Frederick.  'The  Task  of  the  American 
Mother."    Independent,  55:35-37. 

'  Rudyard   Kipling.    Mother  O'  Mine.    In  his   dedication  of 
"The  Light  That  Failed." 

239 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  MAN  11/  THE  CASE 

At  an  early  stage  of  primitive  society  the  mother 
was  the  recognized  head  of  the  family;  but  as  fami- 
lies grew  to  clans  and  tribes  and  leaders  were  chosen 
to  rule  the  best  of  the  male  members  of  the  groups 
were  selected.  Thus  matriarchy  gave  way  to  the 
patriarchal  form  of  government.  Woman  could  not 
be  aggressive,  for  she  was  the  mother  of  men  and 
warfare  meant  the  destruction  of  life  for  which  she 
had  paid  so  dearly.  Aggression  would  thus  defeat 
the  great  fundamental  purpose  of  her  life.  Woman 
had  ever  followed  peaceful  pursuits,  and  to  her  chiefly 
had  fallen  the  business  of  developing  the  arts  of  peace. 
When,  therefore,  strife  arose  among  tribes  and  clans 
the  man  was  chosen  to  lead ;  and  this  leadership  natu- 
rally came  to  include  leadership  in  all  public  affairs, 
civil  as  well  as  warlike. 

Religion  also  developed  with  woman  as  the  priest- 
ess ;  but  the  same  aggressive  spirit  of  man  led,  in  time, 
to  his  assumption  of  the  priesthood.  Still  in  the  an- 
cient world,  historically  speaking,  women  were   set 

240 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

aside,  by  a  vow  of  celibacy,  to  participate  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  temple.  There  were  women  who  prophesied 
even  in  Judea,  although  most  of  the  leaders  and  teach- 
ers of  Jewish  religion  were  men.  Later,  under  Chris- 
tian development,  men  came  into  almost  complete 
leadership  of  religious  rites  and  services.  The  nuns 
of  Medieval  Europe  were  similarly  overshadowed  by 
the  priests  and  monks. 

In  the  modern  Christian  world  men  have  opposed 
and  do  even  yet  largely  oppose  the  admission  of 
women  to  the  pulpit.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  Greek  Catholicism,  and  the 
Established  Church  of  England. 

The  marriage  vow  among  the  ancients  was  liberally 
interpreted  as  it  applied  to  men;  but,  while  ancient 
society  was  mostly  lenient  as  to  the  association  of 
unmarried  women  with  men,  it  maintained  very  rigor- 
ous standards  with  reference  to  married  women.  This 
situation  as  to  social  ethics  evidently  grew  out  of  the 
common  practice  of  slavery  among  the  earlier  nations; 
but  as  it  concerns  woman  it  has  come  down  to  modern 
life  with  even  an  added  rigor.  This  rigorous  attitude 
among  Christian  nations  is  believed  to  have  developed 
as  a  result  of  the  rewards  which  early  Christians 
taught  would  come  to  all  men  and  women  who  prac- 
ticed celibacy.  Such  a  general  condemnation  of  the 
normal  sex  relationship  even  through  monogamous 

241 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

marriages,  necessarily  fell  heavily  upon  women.  As 
a  result  the  laws  as  well  as  the  standards  of  social 
ethics  that  developed  made  of  woman  the  chief  of- 
fender in  the  realm  of  sex,  while  men  were  exalted 
and  their  breaches  of  the  marriage  vow  generally 
condoned.  The  result  has  been  the  traditional  estab- 
lishment of  a  double  standard  of  social  ethics  of  which 
men  have  not  failed  to  take  advantage.  For  why 
should  they  not  ?  They  both  made  and  interpreted  the 
laws. 

The  development  of  man's  aggressiveness  has  car- 
ried over  into  practically  all  great  human  relation- 
ships. For  twenty  centuries  it  has  threatened  to  blight 
and  crush  out  the  spirit  of  altruism  of  which  Chris- 
tianity is  the  highest  expression.  All  this  has  been 
directly  antagonistic  to  that  gentler,  peace-loving  spirit 
normally  characteristic  of  the  mothers  of  men.  It 
was  but  a  natural  impulse  that  caused  Miss  Rankin, 
the  first  woman  member  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  to  hesitate  and  protest,  when  it  came  to  a  vote 
on  the  resolution  declaring  that  a  state  of  war  ex- 
isted between  the  United  States  and  Germany.  All 
the  womanly  instincts  of  the  centuries  were  back  of 
that  cry.  This  great  conflict,  on  the  other  hand,  seems 
to  be  the  result  of  the  highest  development  yet  at- 
tained by  that  egoistic  principle  which  man,  in  his  atti- 
tude toward  woman,  has  so  strongly  typified. 

242 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

President  Wilson  has  well  said  that  the  struggle  is 
one  of  democracy  against  autocracy.  But  the  prin- 
ciples involved  do  not  relate  to  forms  of  government 
alone.  They  may  be  seen  to  ramify  throughout  the 
entire  social  and  industrial  system  of  the  modern  world. 
Man's  treatment  of  woman  as  regards  her  rights  under 
the  law  is  one  of  the  many  striking  illustrations  of 
this  fact.  We  see  the  same  struggle  for  egoistic  con- 
trol as  between  capital  and  labor;  between  employer, 
whether  individual  or  corporate,  and  employed;  be- 
tween producer  and  consumer;  among  religious  de- 
nominations. The  yearning  of  men  today  for  a  last- 
ing peace  is  a  high  tribute  to  woman  and  a  most  strik- 
ing acknowledgment  of  the  eternal  truthfulness  of  the 
Christ  ideal. 

We,  with  our  allies,  may  win  the  war.  Who  in 
America  can  believe  that  we  shall  not  ?  But  the  over- 
throw of  autocratic  rule  in  central  Europe  will  not 
necessarily  mean  permanent  peace.  That  can  come 
only  through  the  more  general  overthrow  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  autocracy  wherever  it  appears  in  the  social 
structure  of  peoples  and  nations.  One  of  the  most 
vital  points  in  this  readjustment,  however,  is  that 
things  be  set  right,  in  so  far  as  it  rests  with  man,  with 
regard  to  the  womanhood  of  the  world. 

The  signs  of  the  times  are  favorable  in  this  respect. 
The  men  of  this  world  are  now  beholding  women  in 

243 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

a  new  light.  Many  of  the  greatest  of  men  have  long 
been  on  the  woman's  side  in  her  struggle  for  political 
and  social  freedom.  And  women  themselves  are  quick 
to  recognize  this  fact.  This  is  the  way  one  woman 
has  expressed  it: 

It  is  to  the  credit  of  man,  to-day,  that  he  has  already 
learned  to  appreciate  what  he  finds  in  the  woman  who 
lives  not  to  please  him  but  to  share  with  him  the  bur- 
dens he  has  been  trying  to  carry  alone.  ...  It  is  futile 
to  pretend  that  she  is  emancipating  herself  unaided  by 
men.^ 

It  was  Ray  Stannard  Baker  who  answered  the 
question  of  why  he  voted  "y^s"  on  suffrage  for  women 
by  saying :  "It  is  a  clearing,  in  a  new  way,  for  merit 
of  whatever  kind."  Yes;  and  yet  there  are  men,  even 
in  America,  who  would  still  prefer  to  exploit  woman- 
kind in  their  own  way  and  who  realize  that  such  a 
"clearing  for  merit"  would  defeat  all  their  schemes. 
There  are  others  who  would  still  keep  up  the  prac- 
tice which  Irving  Bacheller  so  aptly  describes  when 
he  says:  "For  ages  men  have  used  women  for  re- 
ceivers of  generosity  and  sayers  of  gratitude."  Men 
know  all  too  well  that  the  great  joy  of  living  is  in 
accomplishment  in  business,  or  art,  or  in  learning;  of 
successfully  solving  problems,  of  overcoming  ob- 
stacles to  progress.  But  how  slowly  have  they  learned 
*  Eva  Elise  vom  Baur,  in  New  Republic,  5 :3o6. 

244 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

to  understand  that  women  share  these  same  qualities 
and  aspirations.  They  have  preferred  to  content  them- 
selves with  the  idea  that  "by  nature  man  belongs  to 
the  hunt  in  the  open,  and  woman  to  the  fire  indoors." 
Had  they  known  even  the  significance  of  mythology 
with  its  goddess  of  the  chase  and  the  hunt  they  might 
have  realized  that  such  a  type  of  woman  is  only  a 
conventionalized,  man-made  type,  and  not  the  normal 
woman  at  all. 

Put  together  all  these  various  attitudes  and  esti- 
mates which  characterize  man's  relation  to  the  social 
and  political  status  of  women,  remembering  that  until 
quite  recently  the  men  who  would  vote  as  Ray  Stan- 
nard  Baker  did  have  been  in  the  minority,  and  we 
have  the  causes  for  the  retardation  of  woman  in  edu- 
cation, in  legislation,  and  in  opportunity  for  careers 
other  than  that  of  mothers  or  housekeepers.  Along 
with  these  we  shall  also  have  accounted  largely  for  the 
all  too  extensive  prevalence  of  the  practice  among* 
young  women  of  exploiting  their  sex  attributes  in 
order  to  win  favorable  matrimonial  alliances.  The 
sequel  to  the  latter  practice  has  followed  as  a  matter 
of  course:  the  commercializing  on  a  still  lower  plane 
of  these  same  attributes. 

Much  comment  is  abroad  today  on  the  fact  that  so 
many  young  men  shun  marriage  altogether  or  post- 
pone it  to  a  dangerously  late  date  in  life.    If  you  ask 

245 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  young  men  about  it  they  will  probably  tell  you. 
that  with  modem  conditions  of  living  they  cannot  af- 
ford to  marry,  at  least  not  until  they  are  financially 
"established."  If  one  seeks  to  learn  the  causes  more 
in  detail  he  will  find  that  these  vary  according  to  the 
outlook  or  experience  of  the  young  man.  One  will 
tell  you  that  the  social  habits  of  women  are  so  ex- 
pensive that  he  cannot  marry  and  keep  the  pace.  An- 
other will  say  that  he  must  have  a  home  and  an  as- 
sured income  before  he  can  assume  the  responsibili- 
ties of  family  life.  A  third,  perhaps,  will  frankly 
admit  that  he  will  marry  as  soon  as  he  finds  the  girl 
with  the  money.  A  possible  fourth  will  be  looking 
vainly  for  a  girl  as  good  as  mother. 

To  sum  up  the  situation  there  is  a  deep-seated  dis- 
trust among  many  young  men  of  the  real  ability  and 
inclination  of  the  young  woman  of  today  to  make 
a  home.  Further,  there  is  ground  for  the  attitude  of 
many  with  respect  to  the  expensive  social  habits.  But 
the  real  trouble  lies  deeper.  It  has  its  root  in  the 
soil  of  unrest.  There  is  an  absurd  incongruity  in  our 
vaunted  democracy.  We  say  to  our  boys  and  girls 
in  their  school  days  that  there  is  freedom  and  equality 
in  America.  But  they  look  out  upon  the  world  and 
see  the  rapidly  growing  numbers  of  people  excessively 
rich  if  one  is  to  judge  from  the  uses  made  of  their 
incomes.    They  flaunt  their  luxuries  before  the  world, 

246 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

and  immediately  young  men  begin  to  inquire  the  short- 
est way  to  riches ;  and  young  women,  seeing  their  op- 
portunity chiefly  by  way  of  marriage,  set  up  a  pace  of 
living  and  of  dressing  which  may  lead  to  a  home  of 
luxury  and  ease  and  social  exaltation.  Those  that  lose 
step  of  either  sex  become  the  workers,  the  doubters, 
along  with  another  very  respectable  class  who  despise  it 
all  and  decide  that  with  the  odds  against  them  in  the 
lottery  of  mating  they  will  go  their  own  ways  alone. 

The  man  in  the  case  is  largely  to  blame  for  this,  for 
he  has  for  centuries  considered  woman  a  creature  to  be 
pampered  and  petted  rather  than  comrade  and  co- 
worker. At  the  same  time  he  has  given  full  rein  to 
that  aggressive  spirit  which  we  have  been  discussing, 
until  the  young  man  starting  in  life  feels  that  if  he  is 
to  be  a  man  among  men  he  must  find  the  short  way 
to  wealth  or  to  a  big  salary.  And  these  men  marry 
with  the  expectation  of  exploiting  their  wealth  through 
their  women,  as  has  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
the  social  life  of  women.  For  centuries  men  have 
had  control  of  the  situation  and  the  women  of  today 
are  largely  as  men  have  made  them.  Irving  Bacheller 
expresses  something  of  this  thought  when  he  says: 
"Men  are  largely  what  their  mothers  make  them, 
working  on  the  tender  soul  of  childhood;  women  are 
largely  what  men  make  them  in  the  season  of  youth 
and  beauty.     It  all  goes  back  to  the  mother.     She  is 

247 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  barometer  of  morality.'*  When  it  has  become 
traditional  in  families,  therefore,  for  women  to  live  in 
comparative  idleness  and  luxury  the  life  and  ideals 
of  the  entire  family  reflect  these  traditions. 

The  situation  here  referred  to  has  been  intensified 
during  the  half  century  preceding  19 14  by  extensive 
travel  in  older  and  less  democratic  countries  and  by 
the  rapid  development  of  the  habit  of  winter  and  sum- 
mer migration  to  fashionable  resorts.  The  coming  of 
the  limousine  is  rapidly  becoming  another  factor  that 
is  operating  to  extend  and  perpetuate  the  same  situa- 
tion. 

The  normal  man  is  one  who  is  mated  with  a  woman 
who  wants  nothing  better  than  to  work  side  by  side 
with  him,  a  woman  who  is  not  only  wife,  and  mother 
of  his  children,  but  also  comrade  and  adviser  in  all 
the  important  affairs  of  their  lives.  Such  a  man  will 
inevitably  possess,  in  a  measure,  some  of  the  quali- 
ties of  womanhood;  and  the  woman  who  normally 
shares  life  with  such  a  man  will  as  inevitably  possess 
some  of  the  qualities  of  manhood.  In  these  mutual 
qualities  they  will  find  the  basis  for  a  rich  experience 
in  the  finest  comradeship  that  human  beings  can  know. 

For  such  a  man,  clear  visioned  and  self -ruled,  the 
way  of  life,  however  humble  his  station,  will  abound 
in  joy  and  thankfulness.  From  such  a  man,  after 
two-score  years,  or  more  or  less,  of  married  life  there 

248 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

might  well  come  this  apostrophe  to  his  chosen  com- 
panion : 

Out  of  eternal  silence,  from  the  realm  of  the  unborn. 

Two  lives  came  forth. 
Down   from  that  cloud-veiled  region  came  they  forth 
into  earth-life. 

Yet  moved  apart. 

Chanced  then  a  meeting  of  these  lives  at  verge  of  years 
mature. 

As  man  and  maid. 
Love  drew  them  close,  and  soon  these  two  in  holy  wed- 
lock joined, 

As  man  and  wife. 

Time  swept  them  on  and  closer  grew  the  ties  that  first 
had  drawn. 

Then  made  them  one. 
Out  of  their  union  still  the  stream  of  race-life  onward 
flowed, — 

Their  children  came. 

Mother,   and  wife,  and  sweetheart   still,  and  comrade 
ever  true, 

Ours  are   those   lives; — 
Ours  to  be  cherished  still  with  broader,  deeper  onward 
flow 

Until  the  end. 

Children  and  children's  children  then  shall  live  on  after 
us, 

Adown  the  years. 
We  shall  live  on  in  them  beyond  our  span  of  earthly  days. 

And  they  again, 

249 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Joining  with  other  lives,  project  the  essence  of  our  lives 

In  endless  flow. 
Love  hath  done  this, — that  love  which  first  did  draw, 
then  bind  us  close, — 

Undying  love ! 

Comrade  of  many  years,  let  joy  be  ours  upon  this  day. 

Our  wedding  day! 
Roses  for  you  I  bring,  a  pledge  of  love  still  true. 

Now  and  for  aye! 

And  what  is  the  outlook  and  the  duty  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  man  especially  with  reference  to  woman 
and  her  problems?  Do  not  all  the  conditions  today 
point  clearly  to  the  full  enfranchisement  of  woman, 
both  socially  and  politically,  as  the  next  great  step  in 
the  unfolding  of  democracy?  It  is  up  to  the  man  to 
see  that  the  way  is  cleared  and  that  the  forces  of  edu- 
cation be  turned  as  speedily  as  may  be  to  the  task  of 
eliminating  worn  out  and  hurtful  traditions  as  to 
woman's  sphere,  her  education,  her  right  to  participate 
equally  with  men  in  the  fundamental  affairs  of  state 
and  nation. 

The  normal  twentieth  century  man  will  curb  his 
egoistic  tendencies  and  seek  a  motive  for  his  highest 
activities  in  the  ideal  of  service.  Perhaps  there  is  no 
better  or  fuller  expression  of  what  the  man  of  the 
twentieth  century  should  represent  than  that  contained 
in  the  following  words  from  the  pen  of  H.  G.  Wells 

250 


THE  MAN  IN  THE  CASE 

in  which  he  seeks  to  characterize  the  ideal  modem 
male  citizen : 

He  will  be  good  to  his  wife  and  children  as  he  will  be 
good  to  his  friend,  but  he  will  be  no  partisan  for  wife 
and  family  against  the  common  welfare.  His  solicitude 
will  be  for  the  welfare  of  all  the  children  of  the  com- 
munity; he  will  have  got  beyond  blind  instinct;  he  will 
have  the  intelligence  to  understand  that  almost  any  child 
in  the  world  may  have  as  large  a  share  as  his  own  off- 
spring in  the  parentage  of  his  great-great-grandchildren. 
His  wife  he  will  treat  as  his  equal ;  he  will  not  be  "kind" 
to  her,  but  fair  and  frank  and  loving,  as  one  equal  should 
be  with  another;  he  will  no  more  have  the  impertinence 
to  pet  and  pamper  her,  to  keep  painful  and  laborious 
things  out  of  her  knowledge,  to  "shield"  her  from  the  re- 
sponsibility of  political  and  social  work,  than  he  will  to 
make  a  Chinese  toy  of  her  and  bind  her  feet.  He  and  she 
will  love  that  they  may  enlarge  and  not  limit  one  an- 
other.2 


References 

Bacheller,  Irving.  "What  Women  Know  About  Men." 
Independent,  85:378. 

Harris,  Corra.  "What  Men  Know  About  Women."  In- 
dependent, 85  1379. 

'H.  G.  Wells,  "Social  Forces  in  England  and  America,"  pp. 
394-5-    New  York,  Harpers,  1914. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  EDUCATION   OF   WOMEN 

Thus  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  the  meaning  of 
citizenship  to  woman  and  the  things  that  woman  brings 
to  citizenship.  The  great  purpose  of  it  all  has  been 
to  try  to  discover,  if  possible,  those  necessities  of  the 
life  of  woman  to  which  education  may  minister  as 
a  basis  for  adjustments  in  the  future  conduct  of  the 
schools  as  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  education.  There 
is  thus  presented  a  vast  educational  problem,  one  which 
has  concerned  the  minds  of  good  women  of  every 
age,  but  of  men,  for  the  most  part,  only  in  recent 
modern  times.  And,  indeed,  if  one  may  judge  by  the 
literature  of  the  subject  there  are  not  very  many  to- 
day who  are  thinking  seriously  with  reference  to  this 
particular  problem. 

In  the  chapters  which  precede  we  have  discussed 
the  meaning  of  citizenship  in  its  relation  to  women, 
and  the  woman's  part  in  it  politically.  We  have  ob- 
served her  status  in  our  laws,  in  the  home  and  in  so- 
ciety. We  have  endeavored  to  estimate  her  position 
and  achievement  in  recreation,  in  religion,  in  indus- 

252 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

tries  and  in  the  war,  together  with  her  independence 
economically.  We  have  sought  to  evaluate  her  con- 
tributions and  achievements  in  art,  music,  the  drama, 
and  in  learning  and  literature.  To  this  may  be  added 
a  brief  review  of  man's  relation  to  the  situation.  It 
remains  now  for  us  to  undertake  to  emphasize  her 
needs  educationally,  both  as  to  the  extent  and  the  na- 
ture of  it ;  to  ask  ourselves  just  what  the  woman  citi- 
zen should  keep  foremost  in  the  educative  process  in 
order  best  to  live  her  life  as  a  woman  with  whatever 
that  may  mean  to  her  as  an  individual. 

In  Greece  Aspasia  championed  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion for  women,  as  did  Plato  in  his  Laws.  Hypatia  of 
Alexandria  also  urged  that  women  should  be  as  well 
educated  as  men.  Thus  the  sentiment  of  leaders  of 
thought  among  classic  nations  may  be  said  to  have 
favored  learning  for  women.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 
likewise  we  have  found  that  the  nuns  under  such  lead- 
ership as  that  of  St.  Hilda  in  Britain  and  Boniface  in 
Central  Europe  were  a  strong  influence  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  women  of  their  time  of  whom,  indeed,  they 
became  the  teachers.  And  even  earlier  St.  Brigid,  of 
Ireland,  led  in  a  great  educational  movement  which 
extended  to  the  women  of  the  higher  classes  of  her 
people.  Nor  should  we  overlook  the  group  of  bril- 
liant women,  votaries  of  all  learning  and  art,  who  left 
such   a  profound  impression  on  Italian  civilization 

253 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

through  their  studies  and  teachings  at  Bologna  and 
Milan. 

It  is  to  the  modern  western  world,  however,  that  we 
must  look  for  the  greatest  advancement  in  the  edu- 
cation of  women.  In  doing  this  we  must  not  over- 
look Australia  and  New  Zealand,  which,  though  off- 
shoots of  this  western  civilization,  are  yet  a  part  of 
the  eastern  world,  physically  speaking.  Most  of  the 
advancement  to  be  noted  in  the  west,  however,  be- 
longs to  a  comparatively  recent  period — the  last  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  down  to  the  present 
day.  For  reasons  already  discussed  in  chapter  fifteen 
the  Renaissance  and  the  spread  of  Christianity,  even 
in  the  form  of  Protestantism,  did  not  benefit  woman 
immediately.  In  fact  it  took  from  her  for  a  time 
much  of  the  liberty  she  had  possessed  before.  But 
with  the  later  unfolding  of  Christian  teaching  and  the 
development  of  democracy  there  has  come  a  great 
change  of  sentiment  and  practice  as  regards  this  very 
important  phase  of  education. 

Out  of  the  evolution  of  dernocratic  governments 
and  the  consequent  liberation  of  many  new  forces  in 
society  there  has  developed  a  new  type  of  womanhood. 
Taking  the  western  nations  together  there  may  be 
said  to  be  two  dominant  notions  as  to  the  education 
which  should  be  given  to  girls  and  young  women. 
The  one  is  the  belief  that  woman's  place  is  that  of 

254 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

mother  and  housekeq)er,  for  which  no  education  is 
needed  except  that  which  the  home  can  give  in  im- 
parting to  girls  the  necessary  knowledge  and  skill 
for  performing  the  varied  tasks  and  functions  of  such 
a  head  of  the  household.  This  is  the  traditional  view 
that  has  come  down  through  the  ages.  The  other 
notion  is  that  woman,  like  man,  as  a  member  of  the 
social  group,  has  an  individuality  to  be  expressed  in 
connection  not  only  with  the  home  but  also  for  the 
community  and  the  state. 

In  our  still  imperfect  democracies  these  two  notions 
appear  in  varied  conflicting  relations.  They  belong  in 
the  same  class  of  ideas  as  do  the  two  fundamental 
types  of  government — democracy  and  autocracy.  The 
progress,  indeed,  of  the  second  notion,  the  freedom  of 
woman,  may  be  said  to  be  about  commensurate  with 
that  of  the  growth  of  real  democracy.  It  was  inevita- 
ble that  with  the  undertaking  to  establish  govern- 
ment "of  the  people,  for  the  people,  by  the  people*' 
there  should  have  come  the  demand  for  universal  edu- 
cation. It  is  likewise  inevitable  that,  with  the  ad- 
vancement of  democracies  and  as  the  problems  of 
government  became  more  complex,  the  necessity  should 
appear  of  securing  higher  standards  of  intelligence 
for  the  masses  than  those  made  possible  by  a  brief 
course  in  an  elementary  school.  This  need  holds  true 
for  women  as  well  as  for  men,  and  for  this  reason 

255 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

the  secondary  school  is  established.  In  America  this 
higher  school  is  rapidly  coming  to  be  a  free  school  to 
all  the  children. 

At  first  there  were  separate  schools  of  secondary 
grade  for  girls;  and  even  these  were  not  made  free 
schools  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Meantime  some  noble  pioneer  work  was  done 
by  Mrs.  Emma  Willard,  Catherine  Beecher,  and  Mary 
Lyons.  The  first  of  these  established  Troy  Seminary 
for  girls  in  1821,  the  same  year  that  Boston  estab- 
lished the  English  high  school  for  boys.  To  Catherine 
Beecher  is  accredited  the  establishment  of  Hartford 
Seminary  in  1822.  Mary  Lyons  established  Holyoke 
Seminary  in  1837.  In  this  institution  she  developed  a 
plan  by  which  the  young  ladies  combined  household 
work  with  their  studies,  a  plan  which  proved  to  be  a 
great  success. 

The  older  colleges  estabHshed  in  America  were  not 
open  to  women.  Later,  however,  Columbia  and  Har- 
vard provided  annexes  for  the  education  of  women. 
It  remained  for  western  institutions  to  establish  the 
principle  of  co-education  in  colleges,  and,  for  the  most 
part,  in  high  schools  as  well.  Antioch  College  under 
its  administration  by  Horace  Mann  first  admitted 
women  on  an  equal  footing  with  men.  Oberlin  soon 
followed,  although  it  did  not,  at  first,  place  women 
on  an  entirely  equal  footing  with  men.     The  western 

256 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

state  universities  developed  under  the  land  grant  act 
were  the  means  to  a  more  rapid  development  of  co- 
education. Wisconsin  led  in  1863  and  Michigan  and 
California  followed  in  1870.  From  that  the  action 
soon  became  common  in  the  state  institutions.  In 
1910  women  received  44.1  per  cent  of  the  12,590  A.  B. 
degrees  conferred  in  the  United  States. 

It  was  to  the  establishment  of  the  great  colleges 
for  women,  however,  that  the  women  of  America  were 
most  indebted  for  opening  the  way  to  their  liberal  edu- 
cation. Vassar,  Wellesley,  Mt.  Holyoke,  Smith,  Bryn 
Mawr! — what  names  are  these  to  conjure  with  in  the 
realm  of  woman's  education.  They  have  made  it  for- 
ever impossible  to  exclude  American  women  from  col- 
lege life  and  a  full  participation  in  its  beneficent  in- 
fluences. 

In  1871  Miss  Clough  started  a  campaign  for  higher 
education  of  women  in  England  which  resulted  in  the 
admission  of  women  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge  but 
did  not  permit  the  conferring  of  degrees  upon  them. 
The  institutions  organized  later,  as  the  universities  of 
London,  Manchester,  Leeds,  and  Liverpool,  and  the 
Welsh  university  have  placed  women  in  every  way  on 
an  equal  footing  with  men.  In  France  at  least  one 
of  the  universities  has  been  open  to  women  for  some 
time.     Germany  also  had  made  rapid  progress  in  the- 

257 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

years  just  preceding  the  war  and  German  women  were 
coming  to  have  opportunities  for  higher  learning. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  way  has  opened  rapidly, 
in  the  last  fifty  years,  and  especially  in 'America,  for 
women  to  share  with  men  all  the  educational  advan- 
tages offered  by  the  state,  and,  in  most  instances,  the 
best  that  is  offered  by  institutions  on  private  founda- 
tions. In  Europe  this  movement  has  naturally  been 
retarded,  although  England  has  made  fairly  adequate 
provision  for  her  women. 

The  public  press  has  developed  strongly  in  woman's 
favor  as  an  instrument  of  education.  This  applies 
to  all  classes  of  literary  periodicals  including  the  daily 
press,  and  in  some  instances  to  scientific  and  profes- 
sional publications.  A  number  of  publications  de- 
voted exclusively  to  women's  interests  have  been  estab- 
lished and  seem  to  be  thriving.  If  progress  in  this 
respect  has  not  been  as  great  as  it  should  have  been, 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  cause  must  be  attributed 
to  the  apathetic  attitude  of  many  of  the  women. 

The  church,  on  the  whole,  while  most  of  the  institu- 
tions of  learning  established  under  its  auspices  have 
opened  their  doors  freely  to  women,  yet  as  an  educa- 
tive force  through  the  pulpit  has  remained  conserva- 
tive on  the  question  of  better  education  for  women. 
There  have  been  exceptions  to  this,  and  often  those 
worthy  of  note ;  but  the  general  attitude  seems  to  have 

258 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

been  not  that  woman's  situation  and  need  is  peculiarly- 
pressing,  but  that  she  is  already  on  the  same  footing 
educationally  as  man. 

There  are  numerous  social  organizations,  however, 
which  represent  real  values  in  the  scheme  of  educa- 
tion for  women.  Arnong  these  the  one  especially 
worthy  of  notice  here  is  the  woman's  club  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  center  of  population  of  any  conse- 
quence and  having  state  and  national  organizations. 
Most  of  these  organizations  pursue  some  study  during 
each  year,  selecting  topics  that  are  literary,  scientific 
or  social.  These  courses  of  study  frequently  involve 
a  rather  extensive  use  of  such  library  facilities  as  are 
available.  Such  clubs  have  profited  largely  by  the 
extension  work  supported  and  directed  by  some  of 
our  universities,  such  as  the  extension  lectures  of  Chi- 
cago University,  the  universities  of  Wisconsin  and 
California  and  others.  The  situation  has  been  very 
aptly  expressed  by  Lois  K.  Mathews  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin:  "There  are  thousands  of  women  in 
small  towns  all  over  the  state,  absorbed  in  their  own 
concerns,  dissatisfied  with  their  own  mental  attain- 
ments, hungry  for  something  outside  themselves  that 
shall  lead  them  to  higher  and  finer  things.  They  can- 
not go  to  the  college  so  the  college  must  go  to  them." 

Here,  indeed,  is  a  great  opportunity  for  education. 
Taking  for  granted  the  truth  of  Irving  Bacheller's 

259 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

statement  that  "men  are  largely  what  their  mothers 
make  them,"  and  accepting  also  the  truth  of  a  corollary- 
statement  that  makes  progress  dependent  upon  the 
education  of  the  mothers,  and  we  have  a  way  opened 
before  us  through  which,  in  time,  we  may  realize  our 
ideal  of  true  democracy.  What  greater  work  than  this 
could  a  state  possibly  do  through  its  educational  insti- 
tutions? Here  are  classes  organized  and  waiting,  not 
of  those  who  are  sent  to  school  but  of  those  who  only 
ask  for  a  teacher  to  come  to  them  in  order  that  they 
may  learn.  And  these  are  many  perhaps  most  of  them 
present  or  future  mothers  of  men. 

There  is  abroad  in  the  world  today  a  great  move- 
ment. The  social  mind  of  the  western  world,  of  all 
the  world,  in  fact,  is  undergoing  great  changes.  The 
entire  world  is  now  brought  face  to  face  with  stern 
realities  as  never  before.  On  the  one  hand,  we  are 
witnessing  what  centralized  power  may  mean  when  in 
the  hands  of  men  to  whom  power  is  the  only  thing  in 
the  universe  that  is  worth  while.  The  very  heart  of 
this  thing  we  have  been  calling  efficiency  in  govern- 
ment is  now  laid  bare  and  we  understand  the  lowest 
depths  of  its  possibilities.  On  the  other  hand,  we  are 
coming  to  know  the  real  strength  of  democracy  in 
government ;  some  there  are  who  would  say  weakness 
of  democracy  instead  of  strength.  But  no;  the  fear- 
ful cost,  the  prolongation  of  the  struggle,  of  the  pour- 

260 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

ing  out  of  human  blood,  of  the  doing  of  unspeakable 
deeds  of  darkness — these  are  not  due  to  the  weakness 
of  democracy.  They  are  the  result  of  our  failure  to 
attain  democracy. 

From  the  days  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  until  now 
great  men,  statesmen  and  philosophers,  have  said  to 
the  world,  over  and  over,  that  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  democracy  is  to  be  found  in  the  intelligence  of 
the  people.  This  means  all  of  the  people,  men  and 
women  alike,  all  who  participate,  directly  or  indirectly, 
in  molding  ideals  of  individuals  or  in  determining 
public  sentiment.  It  means,  moreover,  that  degree  of 
intelligence  commensurate  with  the  nature  of  the  prob- 
lems involved  in  the  processes  of  government.  But 
democracies  have  not  observed  this  teaching  of  the 
great  leaders  of  thought.  Why?  Because  they  have 
not  understood  values  well  enough  to  be  willing  to  pay 
the  price. 

In  the  great  western  world  men  have  found  them- 
selves free  and  face  to  face  with  great  sources  of 
wealth.  Like  children  that  we  all  are  they  have  rushed 
in  to  gather  the  wealth,  forgetting  for  the  time  to  pro- 
vide adequately  for  the  only  known  means  of  safe- 
guarding the  liberty  without  which  this  wealth  would 
be  of  little  avail.  Forgotten,  also,  has  been  another 
great  fundamental  principle  of  democracies,  the  prin- 
ciple that  forbids  the  neglect  of  any  class  of  people 

261 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

in  the  social  group,  or  the  making  of  advantage  to 
self  because  of  their  lack  of  intelligence  or  wealth. 
In  other  words,  the  health  of  the  body  is  dependent 
upon  the  health  of  its  parts.  The  only  safe  condition 
of  the  body  politic,  the  social  organism,  of  a  democ- 
racy is  the  general  health  of  the  entire  body.  But  in 
this  case  where  there  are  a  large  number  of  members 
of  the  body  possessing  only  a  fragmentary  knowledge 
of  world  forces  and  the  principles  of  justice,  or  lack- 
ing such  knowledge  altogether,  the  whole  body  suffers 
and  is  unfitted  for  meeting  any  great  emergency. 

Such  is  the  condition  of  our  democracy  today,  and 
all  because  we  would  not  pay  the  price  that  sound 
democracy  demands.  Men  say,  "Oh,  well,  but  this  is 
itself  an  inherent  weakness  of  democracy."  No,  not 
if  those  who  are  called  to  lead  in  affairs  of  state  really 
believe  in  it,  really  want  it.  It  does  not  take  long  nor 
much  profound  thinking  for  one  to  see  now  that  a  lit- 
tle more  spent  in  the  organization  and  operation  of 
our  system  of  public  education  might  readily  have 
saved  all  this  cost  of  blood  and  treasure,  might  even 
have  made  this  war  impossible.  For  autocracy  has 
based  its  hopes  of  ultimate  success  not  so  much  on  its 
own  efficiency  as  upon  this  very  point  of  weakness  in 
the  armor  of  Democracy. 

It  is  through  the  leveling  upward  by  more  extended 
education  of  the  masses  that  we  must  hope  to  be  able 

262 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

to  eliminate  from  our  own  midst  those  causes  which 
make  for  autocracy ;  which  cause  men  to  say  "we  must 
centralize  authority  in  order  to  be  strong."  Through 
education  we  must  seek  to  substitute  for  egoism  as  a 
motive  to  highest  endeavor  that  altruism  which  sees 
in  the  highest  well-being  of  the  state  the  only  certain 
well-being  of  the  individual  or  class.  By  such  leveling 
up  we  shall  be  able  to  eliminate  much  of  the  danger 
that  idle  hours  bring  to  men  and  women  and  thus 
give  to  all  individuals  more  leisure  in  which  to  improve 
themselves  and  render  that  portion  of  unpaid  service 
for  the  common  weal  which  all  loyal  citizens  of  a 
democracy  must  render  if  democracy  is  to  realize  it- 
self. 

It  is  some  such  conception  of  the  problem  confront- 
ing us  today  which  we  have  in  mind  when  v/e  talk 
about  making  democracy  safe.  To  make  it  safe  we 
must  make  it  whole.  And  one  of  the  big  factors  in 
this  making  whole  is  first  to  make  women  socially 
and  politically  free;  and  next  to  see  to  it  that  their 
education  is  made  to  comport  itself  as  far  as  possible 
with  their  needs  and  capabilities  as  full  citizens  of  a 
real  democracy. 

This  leads  us  to  consider  somewhat  definitely  what 
woman's  sphere  is  to  be  in  this  changed  social  condi- 
tion toward  which  we  are  so  rapidly  moving.  First 
of  all  we  shall  agree  with  Dean  Marion  Talbot  of  the 

263 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

University  of  Chicago  when  she  says  that  "Through- 
out all  her  training  there  should  run  the  idea  of  her 
high  function  as  a  wife,  a  mother,  as  a  home-maker 
in  the  true  sense."  This  is  only  equivalent  to  saying 
of  men  that  throughout  their  education  there  should 
be  held  in  view  their  function  as  husbands,  as  fathers, 
and  as  home-furnishers.  There  is,  to  be  sure,  this 
difference,  that  as  mother  the  woman  must  give  more 
of  her  own  life  and  strength,  directly  and  unreservedly, 
than  is  likely  to  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  man  even  when 
he  proves  himself  ideal  in  his  peculiar  relation  to  the 
home.  To  offset  this,  man  must  be  able  to  foresee  and 
provide  adequately  as  husband  and  home-furnisher 
such  service  as  shall  relieve  the  mother  in  her  months 
and  years  of  greatest  stress. 

Over  and  above  this  high  function  of  womanhood 
there  should  be  a  realization  that  woman  is  not  limited 
necessarily  to  home-making  alone.  Even  as  wife  and 
mother  there  will  come  times  when  she  may  have 
abundance  of  leisure.  But  leisure  is  not,  should  not 
be,  idleness.  Dean  A.  F.  Lange  is  right  when  he  says 
that  ''For  women  no  less  than  for  men  a  higher  educa- 
tion that  prepares  only  for  leisure  and  perhaps  a  pure- 
ly decorative  or  parasitic  life  should  be  a  thing  of  the 
past.'*  ^     Education  from  this  point  of  view  should 

'A.    F.    Lange,    'Troblem    of    the    Professional    Training    of 
Women."    School  and  Society,  3:480-85. 

264 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

prepare  for  living  and  serving  in  the  life  not  only  of 
the  home  but  of  the  community  and  the  state. 

"The  education  of  v^oman  however  desirable  or 
beautiful  in  itself,  must  be  vain  and  unprofitable  in 
its  results  unless  it  can  be  made  strenuous  enough  to 
overcome  any  recently  acquired  reluctance  to  be  the 
sturdy  mothers  of  a  stalwart  race,"  writes  the  editor 
of  the  Independent.^  If  it  is  understood  that  the 
writer  of  the  editorial  would  say  as  much  for  the  edu- 
cation of  men  in  relation  to  fatherhood,  well  and  good. 
For  both  we  must  also  add  that  education  should  be 
such  as  to  qualify  them  both  for  the  obligations  and 
privileges  of  citizenship  in  a  real  democracy.  This 
means  that  the  acquired  habits,  through  education,  of 
both  men  and  women  should  be  such  that  leisure  can 
never  mean  idleness;  that  it  should  mean  always  op- 
portunity for  self -improvement  and  service.  It  is  just 
here,  chiefly,  that  our  boasted  educational  system  has 
fallen  short  of  accomplishing  the  purpose  for  which 
free  schools  are  maintained. 

For  every  woman  whose  primal  sphere  is  that  of 
motherhood  there  is  a  man  whose  primal  sphere  is 
fatherhood.  It  is  probably  true  that  both  are  failing 
in  a  proper  evaluation  of  their  spheres  with  reference 
to  family  life;  but  it  is  an  open  question  as  to  whether 
a  close  study  of  all  points  in  the  situation  would  not 

*  Independent,  53:2911-12. 

265 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

reveal  a  greater  neglect  of  the  demands  of  his  sphere 
on  the  part  of  man  than  by  woman  of  her  sphere.  The 
man  says  that  professional  or  business  demands  are 
such  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  do  more  in 
that  respect  than  he  is  doing.  But  man  has  made  these 
conditions  for  himself;  and  by  what  inherent  right 
should  he  assume  that  the  cares  of  parenthood  are  to 
fall  mostly  upon  the  mother  ?  By  such  practice  she  is 
deprived  of  opportunity  to  express  herself  as  an  indi- 
vidual, an  experience  which  is  not  only  an  inherent 
right  of  every  individual  but  which  is  also  fundamental 
to  the  highest  wellbeing  of  the  social  group. 

Putting  aside,  then,  for  the  present  the  question  of 
parenthood  as  sphere,  let  us  consider  in  what  fields 
'"1  ^^  service  to  the  world  in  a  lafggr  way  there  may  be 

\/tlo pt^T^nf  any  differentiated  spheres  for  women.  "Training  and 
/i«iv  t''  efficiency  and  not  sex  should  be  the  test  of  fitness  for 
any  profession  or  occupation,"  writes  Emilie  W.  Mc- 
Vea.'  This  is  doubtless  true  as  to  any  test  for  effi- 
ciency imposed  from  without;  but  how  about  the  in- 
dividual in  her  choice  of  a  profession  or  occupation? 
The  fundamental  instincts  are  important  factors  in 
individual  differences.  Most  thinkers  and  writers 
seem  to  agree  that  the  instinct  of  motherhood,  while 

•Emilie  W.  McVea,  "The  Effects  of  Recent  Educational 
Developments  on  the  Higher  Education  of  Women." 
Education,  3^ '11-19' 

266 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

it  varies  greatly  with  individual  women,  is  often  a 
powerful  motive.  Other  things  equal,  and  in  cases 
where  this  instinct  is  strong,  might  it  not  enhance  the 
possibilities  of  success  if  it  were  considered  in  the 
choice  of  a  calling  ?  Is  there  not  some  significance  in 
the  oft-repeated  theory  that  the  professions  of  teach- 
ing, medicine  or  nursing  are  good  for  women  whether 
married  or  not?  What  we  are  thinking  here  is  that 
these  offer  a  way  of  partially  responding  to  the  moth- 
erhood instinct  in  the  case  of  those  who  find  it  a  pow- 
erful motive.  The  argument  that  one  might  choose 
one  of  these  professions  simply  as  an  alternative  in 
case  of  failure  to  marry  is,  however,  a  different  mat- 
ter. Both  the  choice  and  the  preparation  should  be, 
as  far  as  possible,  single  minded,  and  with  the  sole 
purpose  of  attaining  efficiency  in  a  chosen  field.  There 
is  nothing  more  fatal  to  one's  chances  for  success  than 
an  attitude  of  half-heartedness  toward  one's  chosen 
occupation. 

Man's  chief  criticism  of  woman  in  the  professions 
has  been  along  this  line  of  divided  interest.  In  the 
art  and  profession  of  teaching  this  criticism  applies 
with  much  force ;  and  this  very  fact  tends  greatly  to 
reduce  the  efficiency  of  our  schools.  If  our  young 
women  who  prepare  to  teach  could  school  themselves 
to  concentrate  their  thought  and  energies  upon  mak- 
ing for  themselves  an  honorable  career,  they  would 

26J 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

be  rendering  to  society  a  service  of  inestimable  value. 
They  would  be  no  less  fitted,  by  so  doing,  for  the  duties 
of  married  life  should  the  right  man  somewhere  pre- 
sent himself. 

With  the  occurrence  of  marriage,  the  sphere  of  the 
woman  would  change.  But  the  training  acquired, 
whatever  the  line,  would  be  slIX  the  more  valuable  here 
in  proportion  to  its  thoroughness.  There  is  much  in 
this  statement:  "Woman's  real  interest  and  happi- 
ness do  not  consist  in  the  number  of  lines  that  draw 
from  the  home  to  the  outside  world,  but  in  the  multi- 
tude of  avenues  by  which  she  may  bring  the  best  from 
the  world  without  to  illuminate  the  home."  To  the 
woman  who  has  thoroughly  equipped  herself  for  a 
specific  social  service  the  opportunities  and  the  ability 
to  realize  the  truth  of  this  conception  should  be  very 
great.  The  trite  figure  that  "all  roads  lead  to  Rome" 
will  apply  in  learning  where  it  is  rightly  conducted; 
for  there  are  few  if  any  special  lines  of  preparation 
for  a  professional  career  that  do  not  have  leading  into 
them  as  essential  tributaries  something  of  the  product 
of  learning  and  research  in  each  of  many  other  fields. 
These  tributaries  followed  far  enough  to  indicate  their 
true  significance  without  leading  entirely  away  from 
the  main  current  will  not  only  greatly  enhance  the 
value  of  one's  special  training  but  will,  at  the  same 
time,  liberalize  his  education.     Such,  indeed,  is  the 

268 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

ideal  of  the  true  specialist ;  and  such  a  preparation  for 
professional  service  would  meet  the  ideal  expressed  in 
the  above  quotation. 

There  is  another  powerful  factor  in  the  case  of  the 
majority  of  girls  and  young  women  who  seek  to 
qualify  for  some  definite  and  useful  profession  or  oc- 
cupation. This  is  the  economic  factor;  and  it  is  pres- 
ent in  varying  degrees  of  force  with  both  the  married 
and  the  unmarried  woman.  As  we  have  seen  in  our 
brief  study  of  women  in  the  industries  there  is  little 
range  of  choice  for  the  uneducated.  This  applies  to 
men  also.  As  our  educational  system  is  now  organ- 
ized, the  child  that  is  bom  into  a  home  of  poverty  is, 
in  a  majority  of  cases,  foreordainea  to  a  life  of  com- 
mon labor.  It  is  not  that  this  labor  is  undignified; 
but  that  it  happens  to  be  the  field  of  no  choice,  the 
thing  that  can  be  done  with  a  minimum  of  intelligence 
and  skill.  It  is  this  fact,  and  not  the  character  of  the 
work  itself,  that  makes  it  "common"  and  to  some 
minds  undignified.  The  remedy,  of  course,  is  educa- 
tion, but  the  kind  of  education  which  would  not  only 
leave  opportunity  for  choice  but  which  would  also 
lead  to  the  .doing  of  the  thing  that  is  "common"  and 
in  a  better  v^ay.  It  is  thus  that  the  world  has  ad- 
vanced in  its  industrial  development. 

Such  an  evolution  is  now  to  be  seen  in  a  realm  oc- 
cupied chiefly  by  women — the  work  of  the  kitchen. 

269 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

The  woman  who  has  learned  to  apply  principles  of 
science  to  the  art  of  cooking,  to  sanitation,  to  effi- 
ciency and  expedition  in  the  doing  of  such  routine 
work  as  washing  dishes  and  paring  potatoes,  has  clear- 
ly demonstrated  that  here  in  this  "common"  capac- 
ity, degraded  by  slavery  and  kept  down  by  traditional 
false  notions  as  to  real  values  in  life,  is  opportunity 
for  an  honorable  and  exalted  calling. 

A  leader  in  the  teaching  of  home  economics  has  well 
said  that  "the  tremendous  possibility  of  university 
courses  in  home  economics  when  they  are  properly 
grounded  upon  science  and  economics  as  a  firm  intel- 
lectual basis  and  discipline  make  one  stand  aghast."  * 
Here,  indeed,  is  a  field  of  unfolding  possibilities  that 
has  only  just  begun  to  be  appreciated.  One  needs  only 
to  glimpse  what  is  being  accomplished  in  our  uni- 
versity courses,  in  the  extension  field  and  in  connection 
with  food  conservation  for  the  war  in  order  to  realize 
what  these  possibilities  are.  This,  again,  is  in  the 
realm  of  woman's  common  experience;  and  for  that 
very  reason  perhaps,  it  will  be  long  before  we  can 
see  the  life  of  the  home  so  adjusted  that  the  results 
of  the  experimentation  and  instruction  that  are  now 
going  forward  may  be  put  into  common  practice. 

Mary  C.  Crawford  in  her  book  on  "The  College  Girl 

*Lois  K  Mathews,  "Training  Women  for  Social  Responsibil- 
ity," N.  E.  A.  Proceedings,  1914:40-45. 

270 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

of  America,"  ^  has  told  us  the  story  of  the  two  college 
graduates  who  started  out  in  the  business  of  baking 
bread  that  was  done  in  a  strictly  scientific  way.  They 
called  their  shop  the  "laboratory  kitchen,"  and  their 
motto  was:  "There  is  nothing  better  than  common 
bread  unless  it  be  bread  of  a  better  kind."  Knowing 
the  spirit  of  the  times  one  could  readily  guess  what 
the  results  would  be,  even  in  staid  old  Boston.  The 
venture  proved  a  great  success.  The  principle  in- 
volved here  will  apply,  in  some  degree,  to  all  the  "com- 
mon" occupations  of  women ;  and  herein  lies  the  solu- 
tion of  the  economic  problem. 

"But,"  you  say,  "there  are  many,  very  many  girls 
who  have  not  the  means  to  go  so  far  in  preparation. 
Besides,  they  are  needed  early  as  bread-winners  at 
home."  Just  here  is  the  great  weakness  of  our  indus- 
trial system  and  also  of  our  educational  system.  A 
wisely  administered  plan  by  which  it  should  be  made 
possible  for  each  girl  to  go  as  far  as  her  mental  and 
physical  capabilities  would  permit  in  a  sane  and  prac- 
tical education  would,  in  a  few  generations,  take  care 
of  the  situation,  eliminate  the  evil,  and  cost  society  as 
a  whole  far  less  than  the  present  system.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  the  prescribed  schooling  should  ex- 
tend to  a  considerably  later  period  than  that  now  re- 

•  Mary  C.  Crawford,  "The  College  Girl  of  America."  Boston, 
L.  C  Page  &  Co.,  1905. 

271 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

quired  by  such  states  as  have  compulsory  school  at- 
tendance laws.  The  same  requirements  should  ap- 
ply to  boys  as  well  as  girls ;  and  all  should  receive  as 
common  knowledge  training  in  the  essential  principles 
of  democracy  and  its  form  and  purposes  of  govern- 
ment. The  remainder  of  the  adjustment  would  be 
chiefly  the  economic  problem  involved.  Somehow, 
out  of  its  abundance,  society  would  have  to  find  the 
way  and  the  means  to  provide. 

It  will  be  argued  that  such  schooling  would  educate 
our  youth  away  from  doing  the  common  tasks.  A 
fairer  statement  would  be  that  the  traditional  attitude 
of  parents  would  stand  in  the  way.  It  would  be  neces- 
sary to  begin  with  extension  courses  and  a  general 
propaganda  for  more  complete  education.  More  atten- 
tion would  need  to  be  given  to  vocational  and  moral 
guidance,  a  crying  need  of  our  schools  for  both  sexes. 
Public  demonstrations  should  be  furnished  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  such  a  treatment  of  the  problem.  The 
standards  as  to  teachers'  qualifications  would  have  to 
be  raised  considerably  with  a  corresponding  increase  in 
salaries  in  order  to  attract  well-prepared  men  and 
women  to  the  schools.  The  initial  cost  would  be 
heavy  but  the  business  would  soon  be  on  a  paying 
basis;  and  besides  democracy  would  then  be  in  a  way 
to  become  safe. 

It  is  in  the  secondary  school,  including  grades  seven 
2.y2 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

to  twelve  in  the  American  school,  that  the  combined 
vocational-citizenship  curricula  should  be  organized 
and  applied  in  the  education  of  our  girls.  These  curri- 
cula should  be  so  ordered  as  to  make  the  transition 
from  secondary  to  college  work  for  those  who  should 
be  found  specially  fitted  for  higher  courses  easy  and 
with  as  little  loss  of  time  as  possible.  It  would  hardly 
be  expected  that  the  foundation  of  a  course  that  is  in- 
tended to  close  with  the  secondary  school  and  leave 
the  individual  fairly  qualified,  up  to  the  secondary 
standard,  for  a  vocation,  would  be  in  all  respects  ade- 
quate for  carrying  four  years  or  more  of  additional 
college  work  as  a  superstructure.  It  is  always  a  lit- 
tle better  to  make  the  foundation  correspond  to  the 
character  of  the  entire  building.  But  it  is  possible  so 
to  organize  the  work  that  the  modifications  in  case  of 
change  of  plan  shall  be  comparatively  slight. 

It  would  seem  that  in  the  treatment  of  the  ma- 
terials of  secondary  education  there  should  be  differ- 
entiation of  the  subject-courses  in  some  departments. 
The  girls  who  are  to  take  up  domestic  economy  should 
be  able  to  see  the  application  of  chemistry  to  cooking 
and  of  physics  to  sanitation.  They  should  also  under- 
stand enough  of  bacteriology  to  see  its  relation  to 
problems  of  the  home.  In  the  social  science  group 
somewhere  they  should  get  a  clear  knowledge  of 
woman^s  place  in  history,  in  government,  and  in  the 

273 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

development  of  the  arts  and  of  science.  A  special 
course  in  civics  for  girls,  at  least  until  the  main  facts 
should  become  the  common  property  of  the  commu- 
nity, would  be  a  great  improvement  over  the  prevail- 
ing conditions.  In  the  art  work  it  is  well  enough 
that  they  should  apply  design  both  of  form  and  color 
to  their  work  in  household  arts;  but  they  should  also 
have  opportunity  to  elect  mechanical  drawing  and  to 
apply  it  and  design  to  architecture  and  landscape  work. 
Emma  Willard  ^  long  ago  gave  us  an  outline  for  the 
education  of  girls  which  needs  but  little  revision,  or 
rather  adjustment,  in  order  to  make  it  fit  the  present 
need.  She  included  under  "suitable  instruction"  in  a 
young  woman's  seminary :  ( i )  Religious  and  moral  ; 
(2)  Literary;  (3)  Domestic;  (4)  Ornamental.  Under 
(i)  she  emphasized  "regular  attention  to  religious 
duties"  and  the  employment  of  "no  instructors  who 
would  not  teach  religion  and  morality  both  by  example 
and  precept."  There  was  also  included  under  this 
head  a  provision  for  formal  religious  and  moral  in- 
struction. Under  (2)  were  included  instruction  in 
literature,  science,  and  elements  of  philosophy.  Mrs. 
Willard  put  in  an  earnest  plea  for  differentiated 
courses  in  science  suited  to  the  needs  of  girls. 

•  "An  Address  to  the  Public,  Particularly  to  the  Members  of  the 
Legislature  of  New  York,  Proposing  a  Plan  for  Improving 
Female  Education/"  Emma  Willard.  Middlebury:  Printed  by 
J.  W.  Copeland,  1819. 

274 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

Under  domestic  instruction  it  was  recommended 
that  girls  be  instructed  each  day  both  in  the  theory 
and  practice  of  "housewifery."  The  ornamental 
branches  included  in  Mrs.  Willard's  outline  were 
"drawing  and  painting,  elegant  penmanship,  music  and 
grace  of  motion."  Evidently  little  else  has  been  added, 
when  terms  are  given  a  modern  interpretation,  to  this 
admirable  outline  of  a  plan  for  the  education  of  young 
women.  And  is  this  not  the  kind  of  education,  as  a 
basis  for  entering  directly  upon  the  duties  of  life  and 
also  for  further  training,  which  our  girls,  every  one  of 
them,  should  receive  during  the  high  school  period 
of  their  education?  Are  not  these  elements  still  the 
most  fundamental  of  all  to  the  preparation  of  our 
young  women  for  good  citizenship  ? 

For  the  college  woman  there  is  an  almost  limit- 
less choice  of  vocations.  "The  desire  for  leadership 
is  as  worthy  an  ambition  in  a  woman  as  in  a  man."  A 
college  training  should  and  does  produce  many  women 
who  become  leaders  in  their  special  fields.  The  idea 
that  college  training  unfits  women  for  marriage  or 
endangers  the  perpetuity  of  the  race  by  causing  her  to 
shun  motherhood  has  been  too  thoroughly  disproven 
to  require  attention  here.  In  many  ways  the  co-educa- 
tional college  is  an  ideal  place  for  the  mating  of  young 
men  and  young  women.  There  they  mingle  in  the  same 
classes  where  the  opinions  and  points  of  view  of  each 

275 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

are  often  expressed  and  discussed.  The  knowledge  they 
thus  gain,  each  of  the  other,  is  far  more  definite  and 
complete  than  that  which  comes  from  ordinary  out- 
of -school  courtships.  Besides  they  read  the  world  in 
a  different  language  see  it  through  eyes  that  are  clari- 
fied by  knowledge  of  wider  scope.  Not  infrequently 
they  find  pleasure  in  each  other  because  of  some  com- 
mon interest  which  remains  with  them  as  a  strong 
bc«id  through  their  married  lives. 

The  colleges  for  women  have  done  a  great  work 
for  the  world.  It  was  these  institutions  that  first 
opened  the  way,  in  a  large  sense,  for  the  full  recog- 
nition of  women  in  the  field  of  learning.  They  have 
done  and  are  still  doing  great  things  for  women  and 
for  humanity.  Still  there  are  very  good  reasons  why 
for  many,  at  least,  co-educational  institutions  are  de- 
sirable. From  the  standpoint  of  mutual  understand- 
ing and  a  holding  of  common  views  through  educa- 
tion it  is  better  for  society  as  a  whole  that  the  young 
men  and  young  women  should  be  educated  together. 
Even  so  the  segregation  resulting  from  the  election 
of  courses  is  sufficient  to  give  free  play  to  those  quali- 
ties which  either  sex  holds  in  common  and  as  peculiar 
to  one  or  the  other.  If  the  young  women  who  go  to 
co-educational  institutions  were  those  only  who  de- 
sire to  learn  and  who  attack  the  problems  of  the  labo- 
ratory and  the  lecture  room  with  seriousness,  the  situa- 

276 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

tion  in  these  institutions  would  undoubtedly  be  su- 
perior. It  would  then  be  possible  for  men  to  learn  to 
respect  the  scholarship  of  women ;  and  out  of  the  mu- 
tual respect  that  would  result  there  would  come  a  bet- 
ter understanding  and  adjustment  of  all  relationships 
of  the  sexes. 

Both  from  her  age-long  relationship  to  the  family 
and  the  larger  social  group,  and  from  the  standpoint 
of  her  more  modern  concrete  civic  and  economic  re- 
lationships the  proper  education  of  all  women  is  of 
profotmd  importance  to  the  State.  The  greatest  con- 
tribution made  to  our  ideals  of  woman's  education  by 
Mrs.  Emma  Willard  is  undoubtedly  to  be  found  in  her 
clear  presentation  of  the  obligation  resting  upon  the 
State  to  provide  effectively  for  such  education.  The 
provisions  made,  through  private  enterprise  and  the 
church,  of  schools  and  colleges  for  girls  and  young 
women  have  meant  much  to  the  cause  of  education 
for  women.  This  was  all  right  as  far  as  it  could  go. 
But  in  order  to  insure  complete  accomplishment  and 
equality  of  advantages  this  phase  of  popular  educa- 
tion should  have  the  especial  and  wholly  adequate  sup- 
port and  direction  of  the  State. 

The  world  sees  clearly  now  that  the  fundamental 
element  on  which  the  social  fabric  rests,  and  by  reason 
of  which  it  must  either  stand  or  fall,  is  the  family.  To 
make  this  situation  secure  there  must  be  intelligence 

2JJ 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

among  mothers  and  home  builders,  that  sort  of  intelli- 
gence needed  in  directing  the  essential  affairs  of  the 
household ;  and  particularly  that  intelligence  needed  in 
the  proper  care  and  early  education  of  children.  Dr. 
Hugo  Miinsterberg  has  left  us  a  very  clear  statement 
of  this  latter  need :  "We  know  that  the  highly  culti- 
vated mistress  of  the  house  fulfills  her  work  better  than 
one  who  simply  follows  instinct,  just  as  the  farmer 
who  works  with  the  modern  machines  is  getting  better 
results  than  he  who  does  the  work  as  it  was  done  a 
century  ago.*'  Nor  is  the  training  in  household  arts 
and  in  the  application  of  the  principles  of  science  all 
that  Dr.  Miinsterberg  would  have  included  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young  woman  who  is  to  be  a  home 
builder.  "A  training  in  patience  and  joyful  willing- 
ness, in  energetic  activity  and  economic  use  of  time, 
in  earnest  attitude  towards  the  great  problems  of  the 
home  in  unselfish  comradeship  and  in  freedom  from 
petty  quarrelsome  tempers  is  still  more  important  for 
every  woman  than  the  technical  activities." 

The  same  writer  has  given  us  a  very  suggestive 
graphical  illustration"^  of  what  he  thinks  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  content  of  the  curriculum  for  young 
women  as  a  preparation  for  marriage  and  motherhood. 

From  the  survey  we  have  made  of  woman's  activi- 
ties in  the  preceding  pages  it  seems  to  be  evident  that 

'  See  cut  on  next  page. 

278 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

we  are  needing*  a  readjustment  of  educational  condi- 
tions with  reference  to  woman's  needs.  From  the 
standpoint  of  woman's  normal  status  in  citizenship  the 
things  that  are  to  be  prescribed  for  her  in  both  sec- 
ondary school  and  college  should  be  somewhat  more 
clearly  defined  as  related  to  her  fundamental  interests. 


rCCLINQ 


It  sounds  very  well,  for  instance,  for  one  to  say  that 
"Women  have  a  natural  aptitude  for  social  service; 
to  them  municipal  housekeeping  is  closely  akin  to  fam- 
ily housekeeping,  and  municipal  housecleaning  not 
unlike  that  in  which  well-regulated  households  indulge 

279 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

daily  and  weekly."^  If  this  is  true  then  it  would  seem 
that  the  young  woman  who  enters  college  with  the  in- 
tention of  preparing  for  social  service  should  either 
have  had  a  good  course  in  domestic  economy  in  the 
high  school  or  else  be  required  to  take  such  a  course, 
as  a  prerequisite,  early  in  her  college  career.  Stu- 
dents in  engineering  must  have  their  prescribed  courses 
in  mathematics.  Is  it  not  equally  essential  that  women 
aiming  at  preparation  for  a  given  field  of  service 
should  have  whatever  is  recognized  as  prerequisite? 
In  the  tendency  of  the  day  towards  specialization 
in  a  profession  it  would  appear  that  there  are  special 
phases  of  any  given  professional  work  for  which 
women  might  be  best  adapted.  In  medicine,  for  in- 
stance, we  have  men  who  are  specialists  in  the  treat- 
ment of  certain  ailments.  In  law  we  have  criminal 
and  corporation  lawyers.  Other  things  equal  the  en- 
listment of  one's  fundamental,  dominant  instincts  on 
the  side  of  his  chosen  work  enhances  his  chances  for 
success.  Is  it  not  possible  that  woman,  in  her  struggle 
for  the  same  opportunities  that  men  have  so  long  en- 
joyed, may  miss  something  of  value  by  ignoring  some 
such  actual  facts  of  her  existence?  In  this  respect  the 
whole  field  of  education  is  as  yet  largely  a  closed  book. 
As  our  schools  develop  more  completely  the  selective 
function  by  which  curricula  are  adjusted  to  individuals 

•  Lois  K  Mathews,  see  supra. 

280 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

the  needs  of  girls  should  be  a  matter  of  especial  con- 
cern. Just  now  this  entire  field  for  both  sexes  is  still 
a  chaos.  Let  us  hope  that,  as  it  becomes  more  and 
more  cosmic  through  the  experiments  that  are  in  prog- 
ress, there  may  be  revealed  some  clear  principles  to 
guide  us  in  the  education  of  future  generations. 

One  great  need  of  the  present  in  regard  to  the  edu- 
cation of  woman  is  a  stronger,  clearer  background  of 
sentiment  in  regard  to  the  significance  of  her  freedom 
politically  and  her  economic  independence.  Here  it  is 
that  the  slow  processes  of  evolution  seem  inadequate. 
With  the  ultimate  welfare  of  the  nation,  of  humanity, 
at  stake  there  is  need  of  greater  action.  How  can 
all  the  inertia,  the  static  condition  of  the  world-mind 
that  has  so  long  accepted  tradition  as  a  matter  of 
course,  be  so  stirred  as  to  make  possible  the  readjust- 
ments which  the  present  time  demands?  This  is  the 
great  question  of  the  day  for  woman.  The  states,  the 
nation  itself,  all  nations  are  moving  rapidly  as  far  as 
the  action  of  men  is  concerned.  How  are  we  to  se- 
cure that  serious  attitude  of  so  many  women  now 
apathetic  that  is  needed  to  set  the  currents  of  thought 
and  action  right  throughout  all  classes  and  levels  of 
the  social  group? 

The  organizations  of  women  point  the  way.  There 
is  needed  only  the  establishment  of  a  basis  of  coopera- 
tion between  these  and  all  institutions  of  learning. 

281 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

For  the  young  girls  out  of  school  the  night  classes 
or  a  cooperative  scheme  with  the  secondary  schools 
offer  the  best  solution.  For  the  mothers  and  unmar- 
ried adult  workers  and  professional  women  their  vari- 
ous clubs  and  social  organizations  should  be  of  service 
here.  The  falling  off  of  attendance  of  men  at  the 
great  colleges  and  universities  offers  the  opportunity 
of  utilizing  this  available  talent  for  the  instruction  of 
these  classes  for  women  that  are  ready  and  waiting  for 
instruction  and  leadership. 

The  present  world-war  between  autocracy  and  de- 
mocracy is  rapidly  clarifying  our  vision  as  to  the  great 
fundamental  human  values  and  the  necessity  of  their 
more  common  conservation.  Women  and  girls  today 
are  learning  the  significance  of  saving  in  order  that 
others  may  have  enough.  Not  that  the  necessity  for 
such  knowledge  has  not  always  existed,  but  that  it  is 
now  more  definitely  and  vividly  evident.  How 
is  our  system  of  education  to  take  up  this  work  and 
see  that  it  is  perpetuated  through  the  education  of  fu- 
ture generations  of  girls?  Women  in  the  past  have 
permitted  other  women  to  toil  and  sweat  and  dwell 
in  hovels  while  they  have  abounded  in  luxury  and 
ease,  wasting  their  years  in  all  the  follies  and  frivoli- 
ties which  wealth  could  purchase.  Today  many  of 
these  same  women  are  doing  heroic  and  glorious  serv- 
ice for  the  cause  of  human  freedom,  for  the  relief  of 

282 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

the  wounded  and  for  feeding  the  starving  millions. 
How  is  the  school  of  the  future,  conjointly  with  the 
home  and  community  life,  so  to  direct  our  scheme  of 
education  for  girls  that  as  long  as  people  are  in  want, 
and  homes  miserable,  and  the  sick  untended  anywhere 
in  the  world  there  ^all  be  no  return  to  the  old  wanton 
wastefulness?  How,  indeed  is  the  meaning  and  value 
of  education  itself  as  the  great  fundamental  social 
conservator  to  become  an  established  ideal  in  the  minds 
of  all  the  people?  Surely  the  women  of  tomorrow, 
when  possessed  of  the  ballot,  and  while  they  still  re- 
member these  days  of  fiery  trial  for  democracy,  will 
help  to  find  a  correct  answer  to  these  problems  of  their 
sex. 

There  is  coming  out  of  our  war  experience  also  a 
great  new  problem  of  vocations  for  women.  Great 
will  be  the  loss  to  future  generations  if  out  of  this 
new  situation  thus  thrust  upon  us  we  fail  to  find  a  way 
to  make  all  forms  of  service  more  dignified,  more 
scientific,  more  highly  appreciated  and  valued.  Why 
should  there  not  be  found  a  way,  through  education, 
of  solving  the  problem  of  paid  service  in  the  home? 
Of  freeing  this  of  the  ancient  stigma  remaining  with 
it  from  the  days  of  slavery?  Why  should  there  not 
be  found  such  a  basis  for  efficiency  as  to  popularize 
skilled  service  in  kitchen,  laundry  and  chamber,  where 

283 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

skill,  intelligence  and  refinement  should  be  considered 
in  the  fixing  of  a  living  wage? 

Men  say  that  all  this  is  impossible,  that  many  fami- 
lies could  not  pay  the  price  of  the  service  needed.  But 
they  are  thinking  in  terms  of  the  social  order  of  the 
past.  A  real  democracy  must  level  upward  through 
education  and  the  establishment  of  high  ideals  of  serv- 
ice on  the  part  of  all  members  of  the  social  group. 
The  possibility  of  such  a  democracy  lies  in  an  effi- 
cient system  of  education  capable  of  gradually  but  cer- 
tainly bringing  about  such  a  social  readjustment.  Just 
as  autocracy  found  in  its  schools  the  means  of  build- 
ing into  the  lives  of  the  people  of  an  empire  those 
mental  habits  and  outlook  which  have  made  possible 
this  gigantic  driye  for  world-domination,  so  may  our 
democracy,  by  the  same  means,  establish  in  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  all  future  generations  of  people  those 
principles  and  motives  which  shall  make  forever  im- 
possible false  standards  inimical  to  democracy's  ideals 
and  safety  such  as  have  been  permitted  to  develop 
among  us  in  the  past. 

The  call  to  woman  today  is  to  a  new  citizenship, 
a  larger  and  fuller  life  than  she  has  ever  known.  For 
this  she  should  so  prepare  herself  that  there  can  be  no 
possible  going  back.  The  age  of  real  democracy  is  just 
at  the  dawning.  Her  failure  here  will  dim  if  it  does 
not  obscure  its  glory.    The  call  to  the  woman  of  leisure 

284 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

and  opulence  is  insistent  that  she  cast  into  the  balance 
in  favor  of  her  sex  all  the  dormant  forces  which  su- 
perior education  and  opportunity  have  put  into  her 
hands.  The  call  to  women  workers  is  insistent  that 
they  conserve  their  strength,  that  they  seize  each  op- 
portunity that  offers  for  education  and  improvement. 
The  call  to  our  young  women  in  college  is  to  lay  aside 
all  love  of  being  entertained,  flattered,  and  fed  sweet- 
meats by  the  young  men,  and  to  enter  seriously  into 
the  work  of  preparing  themselves  for  leadership  in  a 
great  new  republic  of  men  and  women.  The  call  to 
our  girls  in  high  school  is  to  use  well  the  hours  that 
are  to  determine  their  fitness  for  the  great  service 
which  the  world  is  expecting  of  them  when  they  are 
fully  prepared.  The  call  to  us  all,  men  and  women, 
old  and  yoimg,  rich  and  poor,  is  to  cherish  as  we  have 
never  done  before  the  liberties  which  we  have  in- 
herited, as  the  sacred  possession  of  us  all,  to  be  held 
in  our  keeping  for  transfer  to  coming  generations  and 
a  reorganized  world;  a  priceless  heritage  so  nearly 
snatched  from  us  by  reason  of  our  thoughtlessness. 
Democracy?  Yes,  always  and  for  all  men  and 
women;  but  there  is  a  price  to  pay. 


28s 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Problems  for  Study  and  Discussion 

A  study  of  woman's  education  in  ancient  times. 

The  education  of  women  in  the  middle  ages,  its  charac- 
ter and  extent. 

The  Renaissance  as  it  affected  the  education  of  women. 
Luther's  views. 

The  development  of  the  education  of  women  in  modern 
France,  Germany,  England  and  Italy. 

A  study  of  the  development  of  higher  education  for 
women  in  America. 

An  investigation  of  the  extent  to  which  women  have  pe- 
culiar needs  in  education,  and  of  how  these  needs 
are  being  met  in  America. 

Shall  we  educate  women  for  the  profession  of  mother- 
hood? 

References 

Burstall,  Sara  Annie.    "Public  Schools  for  Girls."    New 

York,  Longmans,  1911. 
Cannon,  Mary  A.     "The  Education  of  Women  During 

the  Renaissance."    Washington,  D.  C,  1916. 
Clarke,  Edward  H.    "Sex  in  Education."    Boston,  J.  R. 

Osgood  &  Co.,  1873. 
Crawford,  Mary  C.     "The  College  Girl  of  America — 

After  follege  What?"    Boston,  L.  C.  Page  &  Co., 

1905. 
McVea,  Emilie,  "The  Effects  of  Recent  Educational  De- 
velopment on  the  Higher  Education  of  Women." 

Education,  36:11-19. 
Sargent,  E.  E.    "Education  for  What."    New  Republic, 

5 :2i9-20. 
Talbot,  Marion,  "The  Education  of  Women."    Chicago, 

University  of  Chicago  Press,  1910. 
286 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

WHAT    OF   THE    FUTURE? 

How  will  woman  respond  to  the  call  that  comes  to 
her  out  of  her  past  with  its  limitations  and  the  pres- 
ent with  its  onrushing  of  events  ?  The  great  hope  lies 
in  this  very  breaking  up  of  established  conditions  and 
customs  which  has  come  with  the  world-war.  The 
situation  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  leaders  among  men 
and  women.  For  the  women  of  England  and  America 
the  promise  of  the  future  is  indeed  bright.  Much  of 
the  situation  rests  with  those  women  to  whom  wealth 
has  brought  habits  of  idleness  and  luxury.  Their 
numbers  have  so  increased  and  the  lines  of  influence 
they  hold  are  so  great  that  they  may  check  the  move- 
ment for  woman^s  more  complete  freedom. 

William  Hard  ^  has  well  said  that  "culture  without 
action  is  an  ingrowing  disease  which  first  debilitates 
then  dissolves  the  will  to  live.  Emancipation  without 
duty  is  a  mirage  of  pleasure  which  raises  thirst  but 
never  quenches  it."     For  every  cultured  woman  who 

^William  Hard,  "The  Woman  of  To-morrow,"  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1913. 

287 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

is  leader  among  pleasure-seeking  idlers  this  call  to 
action  will  mean  a  new  birth  if  it  is  effective.  If  it 
fails  each  one  of  these  will  represent  a  nucleus  of  re- 
volt against  the  democratizing  of  her  sex. 

There  is,  however,  a  vast  army  of  women  who  have 
heard  the  call,  some  of  them  from  afar,  and  have 
already  answered  "Here  am  I."  They  are  found  in 
the  ranks  of  the  hosts  of  earnest  workers  for  the 
weal  of  the  race.  They  are  doing  Red  Cross  work, 
millions  of  them ;  they  are  bending  all  their  efforts  for 
the  conserving  of  food;  they  are  taking  up  the  work 
which  men  have  laid  down  in  order  to  fight ;  they  are 
organizing  to  conserve  the  various  forces  and  institu- 
tions of  their  communities  in  order  to  direct  all  these 
to  a  more  effective  serving  of  the  interests  of  human- 
ity. There  is  little  doubt  but  that  these  women  will 
remain  active  when  peace  shall  come,  and  that  they  will 
turn  the  same  vigilant  attention,  the  same  tireless 
energy  to  the  making  of  readjustments,  industrial  and 
social,  which  will  then  be  necessary. 

Among  this  second  group  and  extending  beyond  it 
are  the  women  who  have  been  the  leaders  and  work- 
ers, in  state  and  nation,  for  the  political  and  economic 
recognition  of  women.  As  to  their  response  the  only 
question  can  be  as  to  their  ability  to  make  wise  use 
of  the  victories  they  have  won  in  the  interests  of 
womanhood.     Let  us  believe  that  wise  counsels  will 

288 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE? 

prevail,  and  the  relatively  few  who  are  ultra  enthu- 
siastic if  not,  indeed,  hurt  fully  radical,  will  be  re- 
strained from  rash  action  that  may  retard  the  growth 
in  mental  attitude  of  the  many  women  who  are  seek- 
ing light  as  to  the  future  of  womankind. 

And  what  is  the  man  to  do  about  it?  What  shall 
be  his  response?  Already  his  objections  to  woman's 
political  and  social  advancement  are  giving  way.  They 
are  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  new  situation  and 
its  future  possibilities.  The  big  problem  with  both 
men  and  women  is  the  arousing  of  a  social  conscious- 
ness of  woman's  real  condition  and  needs.  Most  men 
have  themselves  been  the  victims  of  tradition.  They 
hold  women  in  high  esteem  for  their  many  virtues  and 
their  gentle  ministrations.  They  have  not  yet 
awakened  to  the  fact  that  women  have  been  placed  in 
a  strange  predicament  with  the  transfer  of  the  indus- 
tries from  the  home  to  the  factory.  Once  they  are 
really  conscious  of  the  situation  most  men  will  hasten 
to  support  every  scheme  for  bringing  about  the  neces- 
sary readjustments. 

Men  have  been  misled  in  regard  to  the  economic 
principles  involved  where  woman's  work  is  concerned. 
As  a  result  they  are  lacking  in  zeal  if  they  are  not  even 
opposed  to  the  wider  admission  of  women,  on  an 
equality  with  men,  to  many  of  the  employments  from 
which  they  have  heretofore  been  debarred.    The  neces- 

289 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

sities  of  the  war  have  greatly  changed  all  this  in  Eu- 
rope and  probably  will  do  the  same  in  America  as  the 
active  entrance  of  this  country  into  the  conflict  pro- 
ceeds. Meantime  this  attitude  seriously  affects  the 
situation  of  women  economically.  "Society  no  more 
makes  a  thoughtful  attempt  to  give  the  maternal  in- 
terests the  most  complete  development  and  employ- 
ment possible  than  it  makes  any  pretense  at  all  of  using 
intelligently  the  natural  impulse  of  woman  to  be  of 
economic  value  in  the  world."  ^  This  is  an  expression 
of  the  situation  from  the  woman's  point  of  view ;  and 
the  situation  is  one  largely  in  the  hands  of  man  to 
change  for  the  better. 

But  even  if  men  set  out  to  make  a  readjustment  in 
industries  more  favorable  to  women  it  is  probable  that 
progress  will  be  slow.  There  are  vested  interests  to 
be  considered ;  there  are  trades  unions  to  be  reckoned 
with;  and  there  is  the  inadequate  preparation  of 
women  for  many  of  the  occupations  for  which  they 
might  otherwise  qualify.  There  are  hopeful  signs  in 
the  literature  of  the  day  that  men  of  thought  and 
action  are  considering  these  problems,  discussing  them, 
trying  to  find  the  way  to  a  fair  and  just  solution. 

Well  may  we  ask  ourselves  what  the  effect  of  all 

'Quoted  from  a  Dissertation  by  Jessie  Taft  on  "The  Woman 
Movement  from  the  Point  of  View  of  Social  Consciousness." 
Chicago,  1915. 

290 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE? 

this  making  over,  and  this  broader  Hfe  and  greater 
freedom  is  to  be  upon  the  American  home.  There  is 
no  denying  that  the  situation  is  aheady  grave.  Will 
woman  with  her  fuller  power  and  independence,  go 
the  way  of  the  women  of  Rome  and  thus  bring  about 
the  speedy  downfall  of  family  life  and  of  the  nation 
as  well?  We  cannot  entertain  such  a  belief;  yet  there 
are  those  who  seem  to  think  the  family  doomed  al- 
ready. This  part  of  the  problem  of  the  future  must 
rest  entirely  with  the  women,  and  chiefly  with  the 
leaders  of  thought  among  women.  It  is,  indeed,  pos- 
sible to  say  that  the  chief  determinant  of  the  out- 
come here  is  to  be  found  in  the  place  we  give  this 
problem  in  our  system  of  education.  Should  woman, 
having  gained  the  ballot,  so  decide  she  may  put  into 
the  schools  such  teaching  as  shall  counteract  the  drift 
that  is  sapping  the  life  of  the  home.  Our  sons  and 
our  daughters  both  need  to  be  taught  more  clearly  the 
fundamental  values  that  inhere  in  the  social  elements 
of  a  community. 

The  idea  of  the  teaching  of  patriotism  in  a  democ- 
racy lies  far  deeper,  extends  far  more  broadly,  than  in 
the  externals  of  national,  state  and  local  governments. 
To  be  really  effective  it  should  permeate  throughout 
the  social  fabric — its  institutions,  its  weaknesses,  its 
sources  of  real  strength.  Foremost  among  these  is  the 
home,  the  family.     Next  come  the  school  and  the 

291 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

church.  All  are  inseparably  linked  together  with  the 
general  industrial  and  civic  organization  of  the  com- 
munity. In  these  things  are  the  springs  of  power  and 
efficiency  of  any  nation.  We  must  find  a  way  to  be 
rid,  once  for  all,  of  that  narrow  idea  of  liberty  which 
leaves  out  of  consideration  all  others  than  the  one  who 
entertains  it.  We  must  make  plain  to  our  youth  the 
tremendous  significance  of  the  family  as  the  social 
unit  and  as  the  instnmientality  of  potency  above  all 
others  for  the  perpetuity  and  the  wholeness  of  the  race. 
We  must  teach  them  the  sacredness  of  marriage  and 
motherhood  as  furnishing  the  only  guaranty  yet 
known  to  history  of  social  purity  and  individual*  re- 
spectability. 

We  quote  again  from  William  Hard :  ^ 

The  growing  wealth  of  different  communities,  the  ap- 
plication of  modern  inventions  to  home  industries,  the 
passing  of  many  of  the  former  lines  of  woman's  work 
into  the  factory  have  brought  to  many  women  leisure 
time  which  should  be  spent  in  social  service.  Civic  clean- 
liness, the  humane  treatment  of  children,  the  city  beau- 
tiful, education,  civic  morality,  the  protection  of  children 
from  immoral  influences,  child  labor,  the  organization  to 
protect  neglected  children  and  to  reform  delinquent  chil- 
dren— all  are  legitimately  within  the  province  of  mother- 
hood, and  the  attempt  to  improve  conditions  is  a  part 
of  the  duty  of  modem  woman. 

^  See  supra, 

292 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE? 

What  a  field  is  this  for  the  best  thought  and  devo- 
tion of  those  women  of  leisure  who  are  childless  or 
whose  children  have  grown  beyond  the  need  of  a 
mother's  constant  care!  Such  work  well  cared  for 
would  mean  far  better  conditions  in  homes,  far  more 
children  remaining  long  enough  in  school  to  qualify 
reasonably  for  the  obligations  of  citizenship.  The  re- 
flex upon  the  homes  of  the  workers  would  also  be 
beneficent. 

The  economic  relation  of  woman  to  the  home  of  the 
future  is  also  an  important  consideration.  We  have 
considered  this  relationship  in  two  extreme  aspects. 
The  one  has  been  that  of  the  home  of  "social  climb- 
ers" where  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the  woman  is 
to  display  the  wealth  of  the  man  whose  name  she  bears 
through  the  richness  of  her  jewels  and  wardrobe,  and 
the  general  ostentation  of  living.  This  should  soon 
become  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  is  a  vulgarity  little  in 
keeping  with  the  character  of  a  democracy.  The 
other  extreme  appears  in  the  home  where  the  mothers 
must  also  be  bread  winners  in  order  to  make  ends 
meet  in  the  home.  We  may  be  profoundly  thankful 
that  in  America  a  majority  of  the  homes,  happy  and 
comfortable  in  all  essentials,  are  still  to  be  found  in 
the  group  that  lies  between  these  two  extremes.  But 
even  so  the  problem  looms  large  for  the  future.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  it  is  chiefly  a  problem  of  educa- 

293 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

tion.  Woman  with  the  ballot  can  do  much  toward 
rectifying  the  economic  situation  for  mothers  who 
must  work  to  eke  out  the  family  wage.  The  ultimate 
remedy,  however,  lies  deeper  than  legislative  regula- 
tion. Shall  we  not  look  to  women  to  help  in  solving 
the  problem  of  a  "living  wage"  ? 

The  future  democracy  of  equal  rights  should  see 
the  adjustments  in  our  schools  which  the  effective 
education  of  our  girls  seems  to  demand.  Further,  if 
our  young  women  seek  careers  as  teachers  and  qualify 
themselves  for  competency  a  great  uplift  to  education 
must  result.  The  fact  that  such  increasing  numbers 
of  young  women  are  entering  our  colleges  and  normal 
schools  is  a  hopeful  sign.  There  again  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  the  economic  situation  must  change 
along  with  the  added  cost  of  preparation  for  the 
teacher's  work.  The  schools,  especially  those  of  sec- 
ondary grade,  are  rapidly  passing  through  an  evolu- 
tion which  should  bring  about  many  needed  changes 
in  the  social  and  industrial  conditions  as  they  are  re- 
lated to  women. 

The  church  also  must  inevitably  share  somehow  in 
the  changed  conditions,  if  it  is  to  retain  and  increase 
its  influence  for  a  better  social  order.  The  emanci- 
pated woman  politically  and  economically  will  not  be 
inclined  to  'endure  quietly  any  limitations  not  essential 
to  a  true  religious  life.    In  as  far  as  the  church  rises 

294 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE? 

to  the  occasion  in  this  respect  it  can  hardly  fail  to  re- 
ceive a  new  spiritual  awakening  as  a  result  of  the 
increased  social  activity  of  women.  But  woe  to  the 
church  and  to  the  cause  of  true  religious  faith  if  it 
fails  to  catch  the  vision  of  the  new  day  that  seems 
now  at  hand! 

It  seems  inevitable  that  women  should  enter  more 
and  more  extensively  into  professional  fields  hereto- 
fore largely  occupied  by  men.  Law,  medicine,  den- 
tistry, journalism,  architecture,  all  offer  inducements 
for  women  who  are  ready  to  devote  themselves  single- 
mindedly  to  these  callings.  For  a  generation  or  two, 
at  least,  the  world  is  likely  to  need  them  for  such 
service  in  order  to  replace  the  shortage  of  men.  In 
business  the  tide  is  already  strongly  set  for  the  change. 
The  world  has  hardly  given  a  serious  thought  to  such 
questions  until  recently.  But  as  men  see  what  women 
can  do  the  sentiment  seems  to  be  growing  in  favor  of 
a  larger  sharing  of  affairs  of  business  with  the  women. 

In  state  and  national  affairs  women  are  rapidly 
finding  a  place  which  they  are  not  soon  to  relinquish. 
As  yet  the  advance  has  been  chiefly  in  subordinate 
capacities  except  in  the  field  of  education.  But  with 
full  and  nation-wide  rights  as  to  the  ballot  it  must  be 
expected  that  the  invasion  of  this  field  will  soon  be 
greatly  extended.  Already  we  have  seen  woman's 
force  exerted  in  national  politics.    She  is  organizing 

295 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

even  now  for  still  greater  accomplishment  in  the  next 
national  campaign. 

What  of  the  future  of  world-life  as  related  to 
woman  and  as  affected  by  her  political  and  social 
status?  We  in  America  believe  that  democracy  is 
ultimately  to  become  triumphant  over  all  the  earth. 
That  would  mean  the  universal  emancipation  of 
woman.  It  would  mean  universal  education  of  a  high 
order.  All  elements  of  autocracy  in  political,  social, 
and  industrial  affairs  would  soon  disappear.  And  in  the 
accomplishment  of  all  this  woman  would  have  an  im- 
portant part.  Thus  only  could  nations  find  full  oppor- 
tunity for  self-expression;  for  a  nation  is  made  up  of 
individuals,  and  the  self-expression  of  individuals  is  the 
only  thing  that  can  give  self-expression  to  states. 

Thus  we  find  ourselves  at  the  end  of  our  study  as 
far  as  this  brief  writing  is  concerned.  Whoever  takes 
the  trouble  to  read  these  pages  must  surely  see  that 
here  is,  indeed,  a  great  problem  in  education.  But 
it  is  also  a  problem  in  social  science,  and  a  problem  for 
the  statesman  as  well.  In  conclusion  we  may  well 
ponder  the  thought  expressed  by  Corra  Harris*  in 
writing  of  "The  Woman  of  Yesterday" : 

The  one  woman  whom  we  really  know,  and  concern- 
ing whose  future  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt,  is 

*"The  Woman  of  Yesterday,"  Corra  Harris,  Independent, 
86:484. 

296 


WHAT  OF  THE  FUTURE? 

the  woman  of  yesterday.  .  .  .  She  had  the  courage  of 
a  pioneer,  and  the  patience  of  a  saint,  and  she  was  no 
less  progressive  than  the  woman  of  today.  She  started 
further  back  in  time  and  had  further  to  go.  This  is  the 
only  difference. 


References 

"Future  of  Free  Womanhood."    Living  Age,  2yy  :i  19-21. 
Hard,   William,    "The   Woman   of   Tomorrow."      New 

York,  The  Baker  and  Taylor  Co.,  191 1. 
Wells,  H.  G.    "Social  Forces  in  England  and  America." 

New  York,  Harpers,  1914. 


GENERAL  REFERENCES 

I.     Early  Conditions  of  Woman: 

Bebel,  August.  "Woman  in  the  Past,  Present  and 
Future/'    Lovell's  Library,  Vol.  14. 

Christie,  Jane  J.  "The  Advancement  of  Woman  from 
the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Present."  Philadelphia, 
J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  191 2. 

Douglas,  James.  "The  Status  of  Women  in  New  Eng- 
land and  New  France."  Kingston.  The  Jackson 
Press,  1 91 2. 

Eckenstein,  Lina.  "Woman  Under  Monasticism." 
Cambridge,  University  Press,  1896. 

Gallichan,  Mrs.  Walter  M.  "The  Age  of  Mother- 
Power;  the  Position  of  Woman  in  Primitive  Soci- 
ety."    New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1914. 

Hecker,  Eugene  A.  "A  Short  History  of  Woman's 
Rights  from  the  Days  of  Augustus  to  the  Present 
Time."    New  York,  Putnams,  1914. 

Mill,  John  Stuart.  "On  Liberty;  the  Subjection  of 
Women."    New  York,  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1898. 

Rullkoetter,  William.  "The  Legal  Protection  of 
Woman  Among  the  Ancient  Germans."  Chicago, 
The  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1900. 

ScHEFFAUER,  Herman.  "A  Survey  of  the  Woman 
Problem,"  from  the  German  of  Rosa  Mayreder. 
New  York,  191 3. 

Trowbridge,  W.  R.  H.  "Seven  Splendid  Sinners." 
London,  T.  F.  Unwin,  1910. 

299 


GENERAL  REFERENCES 

Wright,  Thomas.  "Womankind  in  Western  Europe 
from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury."   London,  Groombridge  and  Sons,  1869. 

2.    General  Discussions  About  Women: 

Adams,  Elmer  C,  and  Foster,  W.  D.  "Heroines  of 
Modern  Progress."  New  York,  Sturgis  and  Wal- 
ton Co.,  1913. 

American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 
Annals,  v.  56,  Philadelphia,  1914.  "Women  in  Pub- 
lic Life." 

Association  for  Advancement  of  Women,  Proceed- 
ings.    Syracuse,  1891. 

Bruce,  H.  Addington.  "Woman  in  the  Making  of 
America."    Boston,  Little,  Brown  and  Co.,  1912. 

Dall,  Mrs.  C.  H.  A.  "Woman's  Rights  Under  the  Law." 
Boston,  Walker,  Wise  and  Co.,  1862. 

Dean,  A.  D.  "The  Worker  and  the  State."  New  York, 
Century  Company,  1910. 

Dell,  Floyd.  "Women  as  World  Builders."  Chicago, 
Forbes  and  Co.,  1913. 

FiNOT,  Jean.  "Problems  of  the  Sexes."  Tr.  by  Mary  J. 
Safford.     New  York,  Putnams,  191 3. 

Gallichan,  Mrs.  W.  M.  "The  Truth  About  Women." 
New  York,  1914. 

Tarbell,  Ida  M.  "The  Business  of  Being  a  Woman." 
New  York,  Macmillans,  1912. 

True,  Ruth  S.  "The  Neglected  Girl."  New  York,  Sur- 
vey Associates,  1914. 

Wilson,  Jennie  L.  "The  Legal  and  Political  Status  of 
Women  in  the  United  States."  Cedar  Rapids,  la., 
The  Torch  Press,  191 2. 

300 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

3.    Educational: 

Association  of  College  Alumnae.  "Vocational  Train- 
ing; a  Qassified  List  of  Institutions  Training  Edu- 
cated Women  for  Occupations  Other  than  Teach- 
ing." Northampton,  Mass.  Press  of  Gazette  Print- 
ing Co.,  1913. 

Beecher,  Catherine  C.  "Educational  Reminiscences." 
New  York,  J.  B.  Ford  and  Co.,  1874. 

Briggs,  L.  B.  R.  "Girls  and  Education."  Boston  and 
New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.,  191 1. 

Brown,  Helen  Dawes.  "Talks  to  Freshmen  Girls." 
Boston  and  New  York.  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co., 
1914. 

Clarke,  Edward  H.  "Sex  in  Education,  or  a  Fair 
Chance  for  the  Girls."  Boston,  J.  R.  Osgood  and 
Co.,  1873. 

Crawford,  M.  C.  "The  College  Girl  of  America  and  the 
Institution  Which  Makes  Her  as  She  is."  Boston, 
L.  C.  Page  &  Co.,  1905. 

Dall,  Caroline  W.  "The  College,  the  Market  and  the 
Court."  Boston,  Memorial  Edition  (Rumford 
Press,  Concord,  N.  H.),  191 4. 

Eaton,  Jeannette,  and  Stevens,  Bertha.  "Commer- 
cial Work  and  Training  for  Girls."  New  York, 
Macmillans,  191 5. 

Hodgson,  Wm.  B.  "The  Education  of  Girls  and  the  Em- 
ployment of  Women  of  the  Upper  Classes  Educa- 
tionally Considered."  London,  Tiibner  and  Co., 
1869. 

Lange,  Helene.  Tr.  by  L.  R.  Klemm.  "Higher  Edu- 
cation of  Women  in  Europe."  International  Ed. 
Series.    New  York,  1890. 

301 


GENERAL  REFERENCES 

Mayo,  A.  D.  "Southern  Women  in  the  Recent  Educa- 
tional Movement  in  the  South/'  Washington  Gov. 
Print,  1892. 

Van  Kleeck,  Mary.  "Working  Girls  in  Evening 
Schools."    New  York,  Survey  Associates,  1914. 

"Before  Vassar  Opened  ;  a  Contribution  to  the  History 
of  Higher  Education  for  Women  in  America."  Bos- 
ton and  New  York,  Houghton,  Mifflin  and  Co.,  1914. 

"ViVES  AND  THE  RENASCENCE  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN." 

New  York,  Longmans,  1912. 

4.     Vocational: 

Ames,  Azel,  Jr.  "Sex  in  Industry ;  a  Plea  for  the  Work- 
ing Girl."    Boston,  J.  R.  Osgood  and  Co.,  1875. 

Black,  Clementina.  "Married  Women's  Work."  Lon- 
don, G.  Bell  and  Sons,  1915. 

Bolton,  Henry  C.  "The  Early  Practice  of  Medicine  by 
Women."  (Reprint  from  the  Jour,  of  Sci.  Jan. 
I 881)  London. 

Butler,  Elizabeth  B.  "Saleswomen  in  Mercantile 
Stores."  Baltimore,  1909.  New  York  Charities 
Pub.  Co.,  1912. 

Colquhoun,  Mrs.  Archibald.  "The  Vocation  of  Wom- 
an."   London,  Macmillans,  1913. 

Campbell,  Mrs.  Helen.  "Prisoners  of  Poverty.  Wom- 
en Wage-workers,  Their  Trades  and  Their  Lives." 
Boston,  Roberts  Bros.,  1887. 

Candee,  Helen  C.  "How  Women  May  Earn  a  Living." 
New  York,  Macmillans,  1900. 

Connecticut  Report  of  Commission  on  Wage-Earn- 
ing Women  and  Minors.  Hartford,  State  Publica- 
tion, 1913. 

302 


THE  WOMAN  CITIZEN 

Consumers'  League  of  Oregon.  "Report  of  Social  Sur- 
vey Committee  on  Women  Wage-earners."  Port- 
land, Keystone  Press,  191 3. 

GoLDMARK,  Josephine  C.  "Labor  Laws  for  Women  in 
the  United  States."  London,  Women's  Industrial 
Council,  1907. 

McLean,  Annie  M.  "Wage-earning  Women."  New 
York,  Macmillans,  1910. 

McMahon,  Theresa  S.  "Women  and  Economic  Evo- 
lution."   Madison,  Wis.,  Univ.  Bulletin  496.     1912. 

Martin,  Eleanor,  and  Post,  M.  A.  "Vocations  of 
Trained  Women."    New  York,  Longmans,  1914. 

Minnesota  Univ.  Bulletin.  "Vocations  Open  to 
Women."    Minneapolis,  1913. 

Nathan,  Maud.  "Women  Who  Work  and  Women  Who 
Spend."  Philadelphia,  Annals  American  Acad.  v. 
27.    pp.  646-650,  1906. 

Perkins,  Agnes  F.  "Vocations  for  the  Trained  Wom- 
an."   New  York,  Longmans,  1910. 

Pettingill,  Lillian.  "Toilers  of  the  Home;  the  Rec- 
ord of  a  College  Woman's  Experience  as  a  Domestic 
Servant."    New  York,  1903. 

PoLiT.  Sci.  Qr.  Reprint,  v.  25,  No.  3 ;  "Judicial  Views 
of  the  Restriction  of  Women's  Hours  of  Labor." 
Boston,  1910. 

Richardson,  Anna  S.  "The  Girl  Who  Earns  Her  Own 
Living."    New  York,  B.  W.  Dodge  and  Co.,  1909. 

Rosenblatt,  Ann.  "The  Ambitions  of  Woman  in  Busi- 
ness."   New  York,  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Co.,  1916. 

WoLSELEY,  Frances  G.  "Gardening  for  Women."  Lon- 
don and  New  York,  Cassell  and  Co.,  1908. 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Lyman,  231,  232 
Abelard,  217 
Active  Suffrage,  25 
Adams,  Abigail,  33 
Addams,    Jane,    57,    84,    103 

184 
Adler,  Felix,  74,  75 
Aflado,  F.  G.,  114 
Amazons,   113 
Anthony,  Susan  B.,  39,  41 
Antioch  College,  256 
Aristotle,  3,  20,  216,  261 
Aspasia,  211,  253 
Associated  Charities,  87 
Athens,  2,  3,  18,  211 
Atlantic  Monthly,   186 
Australia,  21,  22,  254 

Bacheller,   Irving,   244,   247, 

259 
Baker,  Ray  Stannard,  244 
Barton,  Clara,  35 
Bay  Tree  Inn,  117 
Beard,  C.  A.,  60 
Beecher,  Catharine,  256 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  35 
Bill  of  Rights,  XIII 
Boniface,  212,  253 
Boston  Herald,  173 
Bosworth,  Louise  M.,  147 


Brewer,    Justice    David    J., 

12 
Brown,  Anna  L.,  118,  119 
Bryn  Mawr,  257 
Buddah,  130 
Burnham,  Carrie  S.,  40 
Burns,  Robert,  229 

Caedmon,  212 

Caffin,   198 

Cambridge,  257 

Canada,  21,  181 

Catholic    Church,    74,     130, 

132,  241 
Catt,  Carrie  Chapman,  59 
Century,  195 
Ceramics,  16 
Clough,  Miss,  257 
Code  Napoleon,  22 
College    Equal    Suffrage 

League,  29 
Colquhoun,   Mrs.   Archibald, 

159 
Comenius,  XII 
Common  Law,  64 
Constitutional       Convention, 

33 
Craftsman,  162,   189 
Crawford,  Mary  C,  270 
Curie,  Madame,  220 


305 


INDEX 


Curtis,  George  William,  35 
Curtis,  Henry  S.,  125 

Dale,  Alan,  204 

Daughters  of  the  American 
Revolution,  29 

Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, XIII,  5,  40,  45 

Declaration    of    Sentiments, 

35-37 
Deland,  Margaret,  161 
Denmark,  22 

Egyptian  Woman,  18 
Ellis,  Havelock,  210 
Employer's  Liability  Acts,  78 
Equal  Franchise  League,  29 
Eustochium,  212 

Federal  Suffrage,  48 

Federation  of  Women's 
Clubs,  95 

Finland,  22 

Food  Conservation,  XIV,  30 

French  Academy  of  Science, 
220 

French  Revolution,  105 

Friends'  Equal  Rights  Asso- 
ciation, 29 

Gardner,  Nannette  G.,  40 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  35 
Grimke,  Angeline,  34 

Hard,  William,  287,  292 
Harris,  Corra,  177,  296 
Hartford  Seminary,  256 


Haynes,  J.  C,  121 
Harrad,  213 
Hetaerae,  210 
Hilda,  212,  253 
Hohenzollern,  XII 
Holyoke  Seminary,  256 
Homer,  210 
Howard,  George  Elliott,  87, 

89,  90 
Howe,  Julia  Ward,  35 
Hroswitha,  213 
Hughes,  Charles  E.,  10,  12, 

79 
Huntington,  Mrs.  Sarah  M. 

T.,  40 
Hypatia,  211,  216,  253 

Independent,  46,  135,  269 
Indianapolis  Survey,  I2q,  121 
Industrial  Welfare  Conunis- 
sion,  80 

Jenkins,  Anna  Irene,  94 
Jerome,  212 

Kelly,  Abby,  34 

Key,  Ellen  K.  S.,  186 

Korany,  Madame,  230 

Lange,  Dean  A.  F.,  264 
Leopold,  Lewis,  100 
Lichtenberger,  James  T.,  70, 

73,  75,  88 
Lincoln,  38,  39 
Livermore,  Mary  A.,  35 
Luther,  XII,  132 
Lyons,  Mary,  256 


306 


INDEX 


McVea,  Emilie  W.,  266 
Mann,  Horace,  256 
Magna  Charta,  XIII 
Martin,  John,  233 
Martineau,  Harriett,  24 
Massachusetts     Institute     of 

Technology,  220 
Masters  in  Chancery,  57 
Mathews,  Lois  K.,  259,  279 
Milton,  215 

Minimum  Wage  Law,  79 
Minor,  Virginia  L.,  41 
Mobile     Business     Woman's 

Club,   116 
Mohammed,  130 
Moliere,  215,  216 
Monastic     Communities     of 

Women,  131,  132 
Mongolians,  67 
Mott,  Lucretia,  34,  35 
Moulton,  R.  H.,  162 
Mt.  Holyoke,  257 
Municipal   Suffrage,   23,   24, 

43.  57 
Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  278 
Musician,  202 

National  Agricultural  and 
Horticultural  Association, 
161 

National  American  Woman's 
Suffrage  Association,  29 

National  Congress  on  Uni- 
form    Divorce,     70,     y2, 

73 
National  Consumers'  League, 
29 


National    Federation    of 

Woman's  Clubs,  29 
National  League  of  Women 

Workers,  120 
New  York  Tribune,  168 
New  Zealand,  21,  54 
Nightingale,  Florence,  190 
Norway,  22,  200 

Oberlin  College,  256 
Outlook,  45 
Oxford,  257 

Paul,  Alice,  47 

Paula,  212 

Passive  Suffrage,  25 

Pease,  Elizabeth,  35 

Pennington,  Patience,  164 

Plato,  XII,  216,  253,  261 

Playgrounds,  124 

Raney,  Ada,  195,  196,  197 
Red  Cross,  XIV,  29,  30,  iii, 

170,  183,  190,  288 
Reformation,  132 
Repplier,  Agnes,  190 
Ricker,  Marilla  M.,  40 
Rogers,  Anna  A.,  236 
Roman  Empire,  4,  113 
Roman  Law,  91 
Rousseau,  215 
Ruskin,  198 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  29 

Sage,  Mrs.  Russell,  103 
St.  Brigid,  253 
St.  Cecilia,  199 


307 


INDEX 


St.  Hildegard,  213 
Salmon,  Lucy  Maynard,  97 
Sappho,  199,  210,  211,  224 
Schoff,  Mrs.  Frederick,  238 
Schreiner,    Olive,    150,    151, 

158 

Serisvati,  199 
Smith  College,  257 
Social  Centers,  124 
Sparta,  3 

Spencer,  Sara  Andrews,  40 
Stanton,  Elizabeth  Cady,  35 
Stokowski,  L.,  201 
Stone,  Mrs.  Lucy,  35,  173 
Sweden,  22,  200,  203 
Switzerland,  23,  217 

Tarbell,  Ida  M.,  37 
Talbot,  Dean  Marion,  263 
Taussig,  Professor,  80 
Taylor,  Graham,  60 
Troy  Seminary,  256 
Tucker,  Henry  St.  George,  54 

U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  6,  40, 

41,  78,  79 
University  of  California,  259 
University  of  Chicago,  259, 

264 
University  of  Wisconsin,  259 

Vacation  Savings  Movement, 
121 


Vassar  College,  218,  257 
VanValkenburg,  Ellen  Rand, 

40 
Veblen,  Thorstein,  104,  105, 

107 
Vulgate  Scriptures,  212 

Waite,  Chief  Justice,  41 
Waite,  Mrs.  Catharine  V.,  40 
Wall  Street  Journal,  160 
Ware,  Mrs.  Helen,  202,  232 
Webster,  Sarah  E.,  40 
Wellesley,  257 
Wells,  H.  G.,  250 
Willard,    Mrs.    Emma,    256, 

274,  275,  277 
Willard,  Frances  E.,  28,  137 
W.  C.  T.  U.,  28,  132,  137 
Woman's     National     Trade 

Union  League,  29 
Woman's  Party,  29,  47,  60 
Woman's  Rights  Convention, 

35 
Workmen's     Compensations, 

78 

World's  Missionary  Confer- 
ence, 133 

Y.  W.  C.  A.,  116,  118,  121, 
184 

Zoroaster,  130 


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